tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-50645085876278065242023-08-19T04:51:39.779-04:00What? Is in the news...We survey the most popular headlines and issues during the day, and serve it up here.Administratorhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/08457535216173436628noreply@blogger.comBlogger19125tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-5064508587627806524.post-82758072535228457962008-07-04T19:59:00.003-04:002008-07-04T20:05:30.920-04:00Cat Fight: Greta Van Susteren v. Anderson Cooper<a onblur="try {parent.deselectBloggerImageGracefully();} catch(e) {}" href="http://a.abcnews.com/images/US/abc_fox_cnn_070202_sp.jpg"><img style="margin: 0pt 10px 10px 0pt; float: left; cursor: pointer; width: 200px;" src="http://a.abcnews.com/images/US/abc_fox_cnn_070202_sp.jpg" alt="" border="0" /></a><br />Greta:<br />"I just read this statement by the executive producer of CNN’s Anderson Cooper show (see below) Anderson Cooper’s show competes directly with ON THE RECORD.<br /> I feel somewhat reluctant to give them this free advertising but my staff deserves to keep them honest - in other words defend against what is an obviously effort to make less of our hard work covering news for you." <a href="http://gretawire.foxnews.com/2008/07/04/time-to-keep-cnn-honest-something-they-say-they-are-doing-about-everyone-elsehhm/">more...</a>Administratorhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/08457535216173436628noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-5064508587627806524.post-3300735327628526432008-07-01T23:41:00.003-04:002008-07-01T23:53:02.151-04:0010 Reasons to LOVE a recession!<a href="http://content.ytmnd.com/content/8/1/2/812b8f3507bb20097c1e83e7b8427b88.jpg"><img style="FLOAT: right; MARGIN: 0px 0px 10px 10px; WIDTH: 230px; CURSOR: hand; HEIGHT: 191px" height="267" alt="" src="http://content.ytmnd.com/content/8/1/2/812b8f3507bb20097c1e83e7b8427b88.jpg" border="0" /></a> <p>From this <a href="http://articles.moneycentral.msn.com/SavingandDebt/Advice/10ReasonsToLoveARecession.aspx?page=2">article...</a><br /></p><br /><p>1. Family dinners.</p><p>2. Shorter lines at the pumps. </p><p>3. Less Junk Mail.</p><p>4. More Coupons.</p><p>5. Free Fitness.</p><a href="http://km3185.k12.sd.us/GREAT%20DEPRESSION/GRAPES.jpg"><img style="FLOAT: left; MARGIN: 0px 10px 10px 0px; WIDTH: 320px; CURSOR: hand" alt="" src="http://km3185.k12.sd.us/GREAT%20DEPRESSION/GRAPES.jpg" border="0" /></a><br /><p>6. Bargain SUVs.</p><p>7. Business startup opportunites.</p><p>8. Growth in Gardening.</p><p>9. Musical Inspiration.</p><p></p><p>10.New Perspectives.</p>Administratorhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/08457535216173436628noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-5064508587627806524.post-13986535979018456382008-06-30T14:18:00.002-04:002008-06-30T14:32:04.469-04:00We are the Virtual Sweatshop.<a onblur="try {parent.deselectBloggerImageGracefully();} catch(e) {}" href="http://www.treehugger.com/sweatshop.jpg"><img style="margin: 0pt 10px 10px 0pt; float: left; cursor: pointer; width: 200px;" src="http://www.treehugger.com/sweatshop.jpg" alt="" border="0" /></a><br />When an executive wants to sound humane during a public address to the staff, he or she will trot out the well-worn phrase, "Our most valuable assets leave the building at the end of the day." Clichés are generally true, but this one may not be, thanks to the growth of <span style="font-weight: bold;">user-generated </span>content on the Internet. Whether they're creating content for sites like <a href="http://www.newsweek.com/related.aspx?subject=YouTube+Inc." class="related">YouTube</a> and <a href="http://www.newsweek.com/related.aspx?subject=Wikimedia+Foundation+Inc." class="related">Wikipedia</a>, viewer-submitted news services like CNN's iReport or videogames...<a href="http://www.newsweek.com/id/143740">more...</a>Administratorhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/08457535216173436628noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-5064508587627806524.post-53441824681675692752008-06-30T13:54:00.002-04:002008-06-30T13:57:38.830-04:00XP RIP.<a onblur="try {parent.deselectBloggerImageGracefully();} catch(e) {}" href="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/Microsoft_Sign_on_German_campus.jpg/800px-Microsoft_Sign_on_German_campus.jpg"><img style="margin: 0pt 0pt 10px 10px; float: right; cursor: pointer; width: 200px;" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/Microsoft_Sign_on_German_campus.jpg/800px-Microsoft_Sign_on_German_campus.jpg" alt="" border="0" /></a><br />REDMOND, Wash. - <span class="yshortcuts" id="lw_1214810823_0">Microsoft Corp</span>. is scheduled to stop selling its <span style="border-bottom: 1px dashed rgb(0, 102, 204); background: transparent none repeat scroll 0% 0%; cursor: pointer; -moz-background-clip: -moz-initial; -moz-background-origin: -moz-initial; -moz-background-inline-policy: -moz-initial;" class="yshortcuts" id="lw_1214810823_1">Windows XP operating system</span> to retailers and major computer makers Monday, despite protests from a slice of PC users who don't want to be forced into using XP's successor, Vista. <a href="http://news.yahoo.com/s/ap/microsoft_xp;_ylt=Ah1iDhKWX2tVV2QT1sp0GJojtBAF">more...</a>Administratorhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/08457535216173436628noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-5064508587627806524.post-31446928566434397342008-06-30T13:44:00.002-04:002008-06-30T13:47:01.838-04:00Bon Jovi to play at free NYC concert!<a onblur="try {parent.deselectBloggerImageGracefully();} catch(e) {}" href="http://weblogs.newsday.com/sports/watchdog/blog/RS500%7EJon-Bon-Jovi-Rolling-Stone-no-500-May-1987-Posters.jpg"><img style="margin: 0pt 10px 10px 0pt; float: left; cursor: pointer; width: 200px;" src="http://weblogs.newsday.com/sports/watchdog/blog/RS500%7EJon-Bon-Jovi-Rolling-Stone-no-500-May-1987-Posters.jpg" alt="" border="0" /></a><br /><p> NEW YORK - <span style="border-bottom: medium none; background: transparent none repeat scroll 0% 0%; -moz-background-clip: -moz-initial; -moz-background-origin: -moz-initial; -moz-background-inline-policy: -moz-initial; cursor: pointer;" class="yshortcuts" id="lw_1214847013_0">New York City officials</span> say <span style="border-bottom: 1px dashed rgb(0, 102, 204); cursor: pointer;" class="yshortcuts" id="lw_1214847013_1">Bon Jovi</span> will play at a <span class="yshortcuts" id="lw_1214847013_2">free concert in Central Park</span> this summer.</p><p>The concert will be held July 12th.</p> <p>The concert is billed as a prelude to the July 15th All-Star baseball game, which will highlight the final season at <span style="border-bottom: 1px dashed rgb(0, 102, 204); cursor: pointer;" class="yshortcuts" id="lw_1214847013_3">Yankee Stadium</span>.</p><a href="http://news.yahoo.com/s/ap/20080630/ap_en_ot/people_bon_jovi;_ylt=An6n2BpJSs1Nnl1rHB64Yd8DW7oF"><br />more...</a>Administratorhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/08457535216173436628noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-5064508587627806524.post-38780205970189213872008-06-30T11:45:00.003-04:002008-06-30T11:49:39.374-04:00Romney Top Choice for McCain Veep.<a onblur="try {parent.deselectBloggerImageGracefully();} catch(e) {}" href="http://blogs.zdnet.com/open-source/images/mitt_romney_powerpoint.jpg"><img style="margin: 0pt 0pt 10px 10px; float: right; cursor: pointer; width: 200px;" src="http://blogs.zdnet.com/open-source/images/mitt_romney_powerpoint.jpg" alt="" border="0" /></a><br />Surprising many Republican insiders, <span style="border-bottom: 1px dashed rgb(0, 102, 204); cursor: pointer;" class="yshortcuts" id="lw_1214840718_0">Mitt Romney</span> is at the top of the vice-presidential prospect list for <span style="border-bottom: 1px dashed rgb(0, 102, 204); cursor: pointer; background-color: rgb(220, 238, 255);" class="yshortcuts" id="lw_1214840718_1">Sen. John McCain</span> (R-Ariz.). But lack of personal chemistry could derail the pick....<a href="http://news.yahoo.com/s/politico/20080630/pl_politico/11435;_ylt=Ak16hOWHPEsu2.lb_m2gteUDW7oF">MORE</a>Administratorhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/08457535216173436628noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-5064508587627806524.post-65251123640822582322008-06-30T11:17:00.003-04:002008-06-30T11:21:15.723-04:00French Soldier Shoots 17 Civilians in France!!<a onblur="try {parent.deselectBloggerImageGracefully();} catch(e) {}" href="http://www.smh.com.au/ffximage/2007/10/08/Spamalot_wideweb__470x323,0.jpg"><img style="margin: 0pt 10px 10px 0pt; float: left; cursor: pointer; width: 200px;" src="http://www.smh.com.au/ffximage/2007/10/08/Spamalot_wideweb__470x323,0.jpg" alt="" border="0" /></a><br /><p> CARCASSONNE, France (AFP) - <span style="border-bottom: medium none; background: transparent none repeat scroll 0% 0%; cursor: pointer; -moz-background-clip: -moz-initial; -moz-background-origin: -moz-initial; -moz-background-inline-policy: -moz-initial;" class="yshortcuts" id="lw_1214823704_0">President Nicolas Sarkozy</span> promised swift and severe punishment Monday after a soldier shot and wounded 17 people, including a three-year-old boy and both his parents, at an open day at an <span class="yshortcuts" id="lw_1214823704_1">army barracks</span>.</p><p>The sergeant opened up with an assault rifle, firing live rounds instead of blanks into a crowd of hundreds of visitors <a href="http://news.yahoo.com/s/afp/20080630/wl_afp/francemilitaryaccident;_ylt=As6biPnzamh1IN4PDlBwKV4DW7oF">more</a>...</p>Administratorhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/08457535216173436628noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-5064508587627806524.post-21706442414186007192008-06-28T14:25:00.003-04:002008-06-28T14:31:19.749-04:003. Steve Carell Signs for 3 more years of The Office!<a onblur="try {parent.deselectBloggerImageGracefully();} catch(e) {}" href="http://flowtv.org/wp-content/uploads/2008/04/the-office-michael-scott.jpg"><img style="margin: 0pt 10px 10px 0pt; float: left; cursor: pointer; width: 200px;" src="http://flowtv.org/wp-content/uploads/2008/04/the-office-michael-scott.jpg" alt="" border="0" /></a><br />Today the angels looking down on Scranton, Pennsylvania are crooning “Beers in Heaven.” <strong>Steve Carell</strong> has signed on to star as Dunder Mifflin’s quasi-top <a itxtdid="6328154" target="_blank" href="http://www.slashfilm.com/2008/06/26/steve-carrell-signs-for-three-more-years-of-the-office/#" style="border-bottom: 0.075em solid darkgreen ! important; font-weight: normal ! important; font-size: 100% ! important; text-decoration: underline ! important; padding-bottom: 1px ! important; color: darkgreen ! important; background-color: transparent ! important;" classname="iAs" class="iAs">dog</a>, <strong>Michael Scott</strong>, on <strong>NBC</strong>’s<strong><em> The Office</em></strong> for three more years...<a href="http://www.slashfilm.com/2008/06/26/steve-carrell-signs-for-three-more-years-of-the-office/">more</a>Administratorhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/08457535216173436628noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-5064508587627806524.post-27215377053779244072008-06-28T14:16:00.002-04:002008-06-28T14:24:39.815-04:002. Pension funds driving up cost of Oil?<a onblur="try {parent.deselectBloggerImageGracefully();} catch(e) {}" href="http://aoit.jatc-sandy.org/file.php/1/DigitalWizardContest/old%20lady.jpg"><img style="margin: 0pt 10px 10px 0pt; float: left; cursor: pointer; width: 200px;" src="http://aoit.jatc-sandy.org/file.php/1/DigitalWizardContest/old%20lady.jpg" alt="" border="0" /></a><br />WASHINGTON - All those speculators getting the blame for driving up the price of oil these days — just who are they? For part of the answer, look in the mirror...<a href="http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/25417337/">more</a>Administratorhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/08457535216173436628noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-5064508587627806524.post-48943546838724719812008-06-28T14:05:00.002-04:002008-06-28T14:16:11.573-04:001. Man Drinks 23 shots in 30 minutes, Dies<a onblur="try {parent.deselectBloggerImageGracefully();} catch(e) {}" href="http://pro.corbis.com/images/RF246715.jpg?size=572&uid=%7B26D68487-7FBD-4BAB-A039-F9EE7F3603DD%7D"><img style="margin: 0pt 10px 10px 0pt; float: left; cursor: pointer; width: 200px;" src="http://pro.corbis.com/images/RF246715.jpg?size=572&uid=%7B26D68487-7FBD-4BAB-A039-F9EE7F3603DD%7D" alt="" border="0" /></a><br />A Florida man died Tuesday after taking more than two dozen shots of cherry vodka within a half hour, according to the Hillsborough County Sheriff's office....<a href="http://abcnews.go.com/US/story?id=5262696&page=1">more</a>Administratorhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/08457535216173436628noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-5064508587627806524.post-35483544913763593412008-06-27T20:46:00.000-04:002008-06-27T20:52:57.630-04:00<a onblur="try {parent.deselectBloggerImageGracefully();} catch(e) {}" href="http://image.guardian.co.uk/sys-images/Technology/Pix/pictures/2008/02/01/SeaCableHi.jpg"><img style="float:left; margin:0 10px 10px 0;cursor:pointer; cursor:hand;width: 320px;" src="http://image.guardian.co.uk/sys-images/Technology/Pix/pictures/2008/02/01/SeaCableHi.jpg" border="0" alt="" /></a>Administratorhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/08457535216173436628noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-5064508587627806524.post-10506746337754506402008-06-27T16:22:00.002-04:002008-06-27T16:59:34.678-04:00Second Amendment- Gun Rights<p><a href="http://www.scotusblog.com/wp/court-a-constitutional-right-to-a-gun/">In the news..</a>.<br /></p><p><br /></p><p>The <b>Second Amendment</b> (<b>Amendment II</b>) to the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Constitution" title="United States Constitution">United States Constitution</a> is a part of the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bill_of_Rights" class="mw-redirect" title="Bill of Rights">Bill of Rights</a> that protects the right to keep and bear arms. Historically, there has been disagreement among scholars as to the exact meaning of the amendment: whether the right belongs to individuals, to organized militia or to the states, what types of arms are protected, and exactly what state and/or federal actions are proscribed.</p> <p>On <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/June_26" title="June 26">June 26</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2008" title="2008">2008</a>, in <i><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/District_of_Columbia_v._Heller" title="District of Columbia v. Heller">District of Columbia v. Heller</a></i>, the Supreme Court, by a 5-4 vote, ruled the Second Amendment protects an individual right.<sup id="cite_ref-0" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Second_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution#cite_note-0" title="">[1]</a></sup> While a total firearm ban was declared <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constitutionality" title="Constitutionality">unconstitutional</a>, the court acknowledged that certain types of firearm regulation are allowable.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Second_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution#cite_note-1" title="">[2]</a></sup></p> <p>Controversy remains concerning whether the Second Amendment prohibits individual states from infringing upon this right.<sup id="cite_ref-Amar1992_2-0" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Second_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution#cite_note-Amar1992-2" title="">[3]</a></sup> In <i><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_v._Cruikshank" title="United States v. Cruikshank">United States v. Cruikshank</a></i>, <span class="plainlinksneverexpand"><a href="http://caselaw.lp.findlaw.com/scripts/getcase.pl?navby=CASE&court=US&vol=92&page=542" class="external text" title="http://caselaw.lp.findlaw.com/scripts/getcase.pl?navby=CASE&court=US&vol=92&page=542" rel="nofollow">92 U.S. 542</a> (1875)</span>, the Supreme Court ruled that the Second Amendment only limits the power of the federal government, but it has been contended that it extends to state jurisdictions by way of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Incorporation_%28Bill_of_Rights%29" title="Incorporation (Bill of Rights)">incorporation</a> through the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fourteenth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Fourteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution">Fourteenth Amendment</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Second_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution#cite_note-3" title="">[4]</a></sup> In light of the <i>Heller</i> decision that prohibited the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/District_of_Columbia" class="mw-redirect" title="District of Columbia">District of Columbia</a> from infringing upon an individual's right to possess firearms, it now appears to be an open question as to whether the Second Amendment applies to the states.</p><p>The Second Amendment, as passed by the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_House_of_Representatives" title="United States House of Representatives">House</a> and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Senate" title="United States Senate">Senate</a>, reads:</p> <table style="border-style: none; margin: auto; border-collapse: collapse; background-color: transparent;" class="cquote"> <tbody><tr> <td style="padding: 10px; color: rgb(178, 183, 242); font-size: 35px; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-weight: bold; text-align: left;" valign="top" width="20">“</td> <td style="padding: 4px 10px;" valign="top"><i><b>A well regulated Militia, being necessary to the security of a free State, the right of the people to keep and bear Arms, shall not be infringed.</b></i></td> <td style="padding: 10px; color: rgb(178, 183, 242); font-size: 36px; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-weight: bold; text-align: right;" valign="bottom" width="20">”</td> </tr> </tbody></table> <p>The original and copies distributed to the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/U.S._state" title="U.S. state">states</a>, and then ratified by them, had different capitalization and punctuation:</p> <table style="border-style: none; margin: auto; border-collapse: collapse; background-color: transparent;" class="cquote"> <tbody><tr> <td style="padding: 10px; color: rgb(178, 183, 242); font-size: 35px; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-weight: bold; text-align: left;" valign="top" width="20">“</td> <td style="padding: 4px 10px;" valign="top"><i><b>A well regulated militia being necessary to the security of a free State, the right of the People to keep and bear arms shall not be infringed.</b></i></td> <td style="padding: 10px; color: rgb(178, 183, 242); font-size: 36px; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-weight: bold; text-align: right;" valign="bottom" width="20">”</td> </tr> </tbody></table> <p>Both versions are commonly used in official government publications. The original hand-written copy of the Bill of Rights, approved by the House and Senate, was prepared by scribe <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Lambert_%28writer%29" title="William Lambert (writer)">William Lambert</a> and hangs in the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Archives_and_Records_Administration" title="National Archives and Records Administration">National Archives</a>. In "District of Columbia v. Heller", the Supreme Court cites the House and Senate text.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Second_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution#cite_note-4" title="">[5]</a></sup></p> <p>The Amendment is the only part of the Bill of Rights that is formed with a prefatory clause, followed by an operative clause; however, such constructions were widely used elsewhere.<sup id="cite_ref-Volokh1998_5-0" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Second_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution#cite_note-Volokh1998-5" title="">[6]</a></sup> In <i>Heller</i>, the Court held that the prefatory clause serves to clarify the operative clause, but neither limits nor expands the scope of the operative clause.<sup id="cite_ref-Scalia_prefatory_6-0" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Second_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution#cite_note-Scalia_prefatory-6" title="">[7]</a></sup> Four dissenting justices strongly disagreed, calling the majority reading "strained and unpersuasive."</p> <p><a name="Precedent" id="Precedent"></a></p> <h2> <span class="mw-headline">Precedent</span></h2> <p>The concept of a universal militia, consisting of all free white men bearing their own arms, originated in England.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Second_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution#cite_note-7" title="">[8]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Second_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution#cite_note-8" title="">[9]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Second_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution#cite_note-9" title="">[10]</a></sup> The requirement that subjects bear arms and serve military duty,<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Second_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution#cite_note-10" title="">[11]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Uviller_11-0" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Second_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution#cite_note-Uviller-11" title="">[12]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Pepper2005_12-0" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Second_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution#cite_note-Pepper2005-12" title="">[13]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Wills1995_13-0" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Second_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution#cite_note-Wills1995-13" title="">[14]</a></sup> dates back to at least the 12th century when <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henry_II_of_England" title="Henry II of England">King Henry II</a> obligated all freemen to bear arms for public defense (see <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Assize_of_Arms" title="Assize of Arms">Assize of Arms</a>). At that time, it was customary for a soldier to purchase, maintain, keep, and bring his own armor and weapon for military service. This was of such importance that Crown officials gave periodic inspections to guarantee a properly armed militia. <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henry_III_of_England" title="Henry III of England">King Henry III</a> required every subject between the ages of fifteen and fifty (including non-land owning subjects) to own a weapon other than a knife. The reason for such a requirement was that in the absence of a regular army and police force (which was not established until 1829), it was the duty of every man to keep watch and ward at night to capture and confront suspicious persons. Every subject had an obligation to protect the king’s peace and assist in the suppression of riots.<sup id="cite_ref-Levy1999_14-0" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Second_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution#cite_note-Levy1999-14" title="">[15]</a></sup> This remained relatively unchanged until 1671, when <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parliament" title="Parliament">Parliament</a> created a statute that drastically raised the property qualifications needed to possess firearms. In essence, this statute disarmed all but the very wealthy. In 1686, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_II_of_England" title="James II of England">King James II</a> banned without exception the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Protestantism" title="Protestantism">Protestants'</a> ability to possess firearms, even while Protestants constituted over 95% of the English subjects. Not until 1689, with the rise of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_of_Orange" title="William of Orange">William of Orange</a>, was this reversed by the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bill_of_Rights_1689" title="Bill of Rights 1689">English Declaration of Rights</a> which declared that "Subjects which are Protestants may have Arms for their defence suitable to their Conditions, and as allowed by Law".</p> <p>When Colonists protested British efforts to disarm their militias in the early phases of the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Revolution" title="American Revolution">American Revolution</a>, colonists cited the Declaration of Rights, Blackstone's summary of the Declaration of Rights, their own militia laws, and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Common_Law" class="mw-redirect" title="Common Law">Common Law</a> rights to self-defense. While British policy in the early phases of the Revolution clearly aimed to prevent coordinated action by the militia, there is no evidence that the British sought to restrict the traditional common law right of self-defense. Indeed, in his arguments on behalf of British troops in the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boston_Massacre" title="Boston Massacre">Boston Massacre</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Adams" title="John Adams">John Adams</a> invoked the common law of self-defense.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Second_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution#cite_note-15" title="">[16]</a></sup></p> <p>Some have seen the Second Amendment as derivative of a common law <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Right_to_keep_and_bear_arms" title="Right to keep and bear arms">right to keep and bear arms</a>; Thomas B. McAffee & Michael J. Quinlan, writing in the North Carolina Law Review, March 1997, Page 781, stated "… <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Madison" title="James Madison">Madison</a> did not invent the right to keep and bear arms when he drafted the Second Amendment—the right was pre-existing at both common law and in the early state constitutions."<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Second_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution#cite_note-16" title="">[17]</a></sup></p> <p>Others perceive a distinction between the right to bear arms and the right to self-defense; Robert Spitzer has stated: "…the matter of personal or individual self-defense, whether from wild animals or modern-day predators, does not fall within, nor is it dependent on, the Second Amendment rubric. Nothing in the history, construction, or interpretation of the Amendment applies or infers such a protection. Rather, legal protection for personal self-defense arises from the British common law tradition and modern criminal law; not from constitutional law."<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Second_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution#cite_note-17" title="">[18]</a></sup> Heyman has similarly argued that the common law right of self defense was legally distinct from the right to bear arms.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Second_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution#cite_note-18" title="">[19]</a></sup></p> <p><a name="Origin" id="Origin"></a></p> <h2><span class="editsection">[<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Second_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Origin">edit</a>]</span> <span class="mw-headline">Origin</span></h2> <p>The first part of the of the Second Amendment is a shortened version of language found in the 1776 Virginia Declaration of Rights, largely the work of George Mason. Similar language appears in many of the Revolutionary Era state Constitutions. This Declaration states</p> <blockquote> <p>That a well-regulated militia, composed of the body of the people, trained to arms, is the proper, natural, and safe defense of a free state; that standing armies, in time of peace, should be avoided as dangerous to liberty; and that in all cases the military should be under strict subordination to, and governed by, the civil power.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Second_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution#cite_note-19" title="">[20]</a></sup></p> </blockquote> <p>In 1786, a decade after the Declaration of Independence was signed, the United States existed as a loose national government under the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Articles_of_Confederation" title="Articles of Confederation">Articles of Confederation</a>. This confederation was perceived to have several weaknesses, among which was the inability to mount a Federal military response to an armed uprising in western <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Massachusetts" title="Massachusetts">Massachusetts</a> known as <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shays%27_Rebellion" title="Shays' Rebellion">Shays' Rebellion</a>.</p> <p>In 1787, to address these weaknesses, the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philadelphia_Convention" title="Philadelphia Convention">Constitutional Convention</a> was convened with the charter of amending the Articles. When the convention concluded with a proposed Constitution, those who debated the ratification of the Constitution divided into two camps; the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Federalism_%28United_States%29" class="mw-redirect" title="Federalism (United States)">Federalists</a> (who supported ratification of the Constitution) and the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anti-Federalism" title="Anti-Federalism">Anti-Federalists</a> (who opposed it).</p> <p>Among their objections to the Constitution, Anti-Federalists feared creation of a standing army not under civilian control that could eventually endanger <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democracy" title="Democracy">democracy</a> and civil liberties as had happened recently in the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Colonies" class="mw-redirect" title="American Colonies">American Colonies</a> and Europe.<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Second_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution#cite_note-20" title="">[21]</a></sup> Although the Anti-Federalists were ultimately unsuccessful at blocking ratification of the Constitution, through the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Massachusetts_Compromise" title="Massachusetts Compromise">Massachusetts Compromise</a> they laid the groundwork to ensure that a <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Bill_of_Rights" title="United States Bill of Rights">Bill of Rights</a> would be drafted, which would provide constitutional guarantees against encroachment by the government of certain rights.</p> <p>The Federalists on the other hand held that a Bill of Rights was unnecessary, particularly since the federal government could never raise a standard army powerful enough to overcome the militia. Leading Federalist <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Madison" title="James Madison">James Madison</a> wrote:</p> <blockquote class="templatequote"> <div> <p>Let a regular army, fully equal to the resources of the country, be formed; and let it be entirely at the devotion of the federal government; still it would not be going too far to say, that the state governments, with the people on their side, would be able to repel the danger. The highest number to which, according to the best computation, a standing army can be carried in any country, does not exceed one hundredth of the whole number of souls; or one twenty-fifth part of the number able to bear arms. This proportion would not yield, in the United States, an army of more than twenty-five or thirty thousand men. To these would be opposed a militia amounting to near half a million of citizens with arms in their hands, officered by men chosen from among themselves, fighting for their common liberties, and united and conducted by governments possessing their affections and confidence. It may well be doubted, whether a militia thus circumstanced could ever be conquered by such a proportion of regular troops.<sup id="cite_ref-fed46_21-0" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Second_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution#cite_note-fed46-21" title="">[22]</a></sup></p> </div> </blockquote> <p>Similarly, Federalist <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Noah_Webster" title="Noah Webster">Noah Webster</a> wrote:</p> <blockquote class="templatequote"> <div> <p>Tyranny is the exercise of some power over a man, which is not warranted by law, or necessary for the public safety. A people can never be deprived of their liberties, while they retain in their own hands, a power sufficient to any other power in the state.<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Second_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution#cite_note-22" title="">[23]</a></sup></p> </div> </blockquote> <p>One example given by Webster of a "power" that the people could resist was that of a standing army:</p> <blockquote class="templatequote"> <div> <p>Another source of power in government is a military force. But this, to be efficient, must be superior to any force that exists among the people, or which they can command; for otherwise this force would be annihilated, on the first exercise of acts of oppression. Before a standing army can rule, the people must be disarmed; as they are in almost every kingdom in Europe. The supreme power in America cannot enforce unjust laws by the sword; because the whole body of the people are armed, and constitute a force superior to any band of regular troops that can be, on any pretence, raised in the United States.<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Second_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution#cite_note-23" title="">[24]</a></sup></p> </div> </blockquote> <p>The controversy of a <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Standing_army" title="Standing army">standing army</a> for the United States existed in context of the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Continental_Army_units" title="List of Continental Army units">Continental Forces</a> that had won the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Revolutionary_War" title="American Revolutionary War">American Revolutionary War</a> which consisted of both the standing <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Continental_Army" title="Continental Army">Continental Army</a> created by the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Continental_Congress" title="Continental Congress">Continental Congress</a> and of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Continental_Army_units#State_and_Militia_Units" title="List of Continental Army units">State and Militia Units</a>. In opposition, the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_British_units_in_the_American_Revolutionary_War" title="List of British units in the American Revolutionary War">British Forces</a> consisted of a mixture of the standing British Army, Loyalist Militia, and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hessian_%28soldiers%29" title="Hessian (soldiers)">Hessian</a> <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercenary" title="Mercenary">mercenaries</a>.</p> <p>Federalists, on the other hand, believed that federal government must be trusted and that the army and the militias "ought certainly to be under the regulation and at the disposal" of federal government. This belief was fundamentally stated by <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexander_Hamilton" title="Alexander Hamilton">Alexander Hamilton</a>:</p> <blockquote class="templatequote"> <div> <p>The power of regulating the militia, and of commanding its services in times of insurrection and invasion are natural incidents to the duties of superintending the common defense, and of watching over the internal peace of the Confederacy.<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Second_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution#cite_note-24" title="">[25]</a></sup></p> </div> </blockquote> <p>The origin of the Second Amendment also occurred in context of an ongoing debate about "the people" fighting governmental tyranny, (as described by Anti-federalists); or the risk of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ochlocracy" title="Ochlocracy">mob rule</a> of "the people", (as described by the Federalists). These feelings can be seen in the "a force superior" quote of Noah Webster above, and in contrast, when <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Adams" title="John Adams">John Adams</a> wrote of his fears about Anti-federalists in the ongoing <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/French_Revolution" title="French Revolution">revolution in France</a>:</p> <blockquote class="templatequote"> <div> <p>The State is in critical Circumstances, and have been brought into them by the Heat and Impatience of the People. If nothing will bring them to consideration, I fear they will suffer.<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Second_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution#cite_note-25" title="">[26]</a></sup></p> </div> </blockquote> <p>A widespread fear during the debates on the ratification of the Constitution, was the possibility of a military takeover of the states by the federal government. Edward F. Cooke states:</p> <blockquote> <p>In the eighteenth century people feared that Congress might, by passing a law, prohibit the states from arming their citizens. Then having all the armed strength at its command, the national government could overwhelm the states. <sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Second_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution#cite_note-26" title="">[27]</a></sup></p> </blockquote> <p>While under Article I, Section 10 of the Constitution the states retained the power to wage war in self defense, that section denies them both an army and a navy, making the militia the only allowed state armed body. With the obligation for the arming of the militia also transferred to the federal government under Article I, Section 8, all military forces would, in one way or another, be under the control of the federal government. As Cooke states, many feared that the federal government, either by ignoring its responsibility to arm the militia, or passing laws disarming it, could now easily achieve military dominance over the states, forcing them to submit though armed force.</p> <p>Anti-Federalist Patrick Henry during the opening debates of the Virginia Ratification Convention stated his strong belief that arms are required to secure rights and freedoms from those that would take them away</p> <blockquote> <p>Guard with jealous attention the public liberty. Suspect every one who approaches that jewel. Unfortunately, nothing will preserve it but downright force. Whenever you give up that force, you are inevitably ruined. … O sir, we should have fine times, indeed, if, to punish tyrants, it were only sufficient to assemble the people! Your arms, wherewith you could defend yourselves, are gone; … Did you ever read of any revolution in a nation, brought about by the punishment of those in power, inflicted by those who had no power at all? … Will your mace-bearer be a match for a disciplined regiment?<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Second_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution#cite_note-27" title="">[28]</a></sup></p> </blockquote> <p>George Mason during that debate also showed his distrust of Congress and the possibility that it would not fund the arming for the militia as an excuse for the creation of a standing army, which could later to be used as an instrument of tyranny by Congress.</p> <blockquote> <p>The militia may be here destroyed by that method which has been practised in other parts of the world before; that is, by rendering them useless—by disarming them. Under various pretences, Congress may neglect to provide for arming and disciplining the militia; and the state governments cannot do it, for Congress has an exclusive right to arm them, &c. … Should the national government wish to render the militia useless, they may neglect them, and let them perish, in order to have a pretence of establishing a standing army. … But when once a standing army is established in any country, the people lose their liberty. When, against a regular and disciplined army, yeomanry are the only defence,—yeomanry, unskilful and unarmed,—what chance is there for preserving freedom?<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Second_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution#cite_note-28" title="">[29]</a></sup></p> </blockquote> <p>Patrick Henry during debate also states</p> <blockquote> <p>The militia, sir, is our ultimate safety. We can have no security without it.<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Second_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution#cite_note-29" title="">[30]</a></sup></p> </blockquote> <p>Reaching a compromise between these widely disparate positions was not easy, but nonetheless, a compromise was negotiated with the result being the Second Amendment.</p> <p><a name="Creation" id="Creation"></a></p> <h2> <span class="mw-headline">Creation</span></h2> <p><a name="Conflict_and_compromise" id="Conflict_and_compromise"></a></p> <h3><span class="mw-headline">Conflict and compromise</span></h3> <p>In the early months of 1789, the United States was engaged in an ideological conflict between <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Federalists" class="mw-redirect" title="Federalists">Federalists</a>, who favored a stronger central government, and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antifederalists" class="mw-redirect" title="Antifederalists">Antifederalists</a>, who were skeptical of a strong central government. This conflict was accentuated by the recent news of a brewing, potentially violent revolution in France with similar Antifederal tensions. Also, the conflict in beliefs continued between northern states, that generally favored Federalist values, and southern states, that tended to share Antifederalist values.</p> <p>Intense concerns gripped the country of the potential for success or failure of the newly-formed United States. The first presidential inauguration of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_Washington" title="George Washington">George Washington</a> had occurred just a few short weeks earlier.</p> <p>Antifederalists supported the proposal to amend the Constitution with clearly-defined and enumerated rights to provide further constraints on the new government, while opponents felt that by listing only certain rights, other unlisted rights would fail to be protected. Amidst this debate, a compromise was reached, and James Madison drafted what ultimately became the United States Bill of Rights, which was proposed to the Congress on <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/June_8" title="June 8">June 8</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1789" title="1789">1789</a>.</p> <p>The original text of what was to become the Second Amendment, as brought to the floor of the U.S. House of Representatives of the first session of the First Congress was:</p> <blockquote class="templatequote"> <div> <p>The right of the people to keep and bear arms shall not be infringed; a well armed and well regulated militia being the best security of a free country; but no person religiously scrupulous of bearing arms shall be compelled to render military service in person.<sup id="cite_ref-aoc-p451_30-0" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Second_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution#cite_note-aoc-p451-30" title="">[31]</a></sup></p> </div> </blockquote> <p>The Bill of Rights that Madison introduced on <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/June_8" title="June 8">June 8</a> was not composed of numbered amendments intended to be added at the end of the Constitution. The Rights instead were to be inserted into the existing Constitution. The right to keep and bear arms was not to be inserted in Article I, Section 8 that specifies Congress's power over the militia. The sentence that later became the Second Amendment was to be inserted in the Article I, Section 9, between clauses 3 and 4, following the prohibitions on suspension of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Habeas_corpus" title="Habeas corpus">habeas corpus</a>, bills of attainder, and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ex_post_facto_law" title="Ex post facto law">ex post facto laws</a>, all individual civil rights asserted by individuals as a defense against government action.<sup id="cite_ref-aoc-p451_30-1" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Second_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution#cite_note-aoc-p451-30" title="">[31]</a></sup> Additionally, these provisions can all be interpreted as limits on congressional power, a view that has been advanced by supporters of the individual rights view of the Amendment.<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Second_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution#cite_note-31" title="">[32]</a></sup> Debate in the House on the remainder of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/June_8" title="June 8">June 8</a> focused again on whether a Bill of Rights was appropriate, and the matter was held for a later time. On <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/July_21" title="July 21">July 21</a>, however, Madison raised the issue of his Bill and proposed a select committee be created to report on it. The House voted in favor of Madison's motion,<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Second_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution#cite_note-32" title="">[33]</a></sup> and the Bill of Rights entered committee for review. No official records were kept of the proceedings of the committee, but on <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/July_28" title="July 28">July 28</a>, the committee returned to the House a reworded version of the Second Amendment.<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Second_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution#cite_note-33" title="">[34]</a></sup> On <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/August_17" title="August 17">August 17</a>, that version was read into the Journal:</p> <blockquote class="templatequote"> <div> <p>A well regulated militia, composed of the body of the people, being the best security of a free State, the right of the people to keep and bear arms shall not be infringed; but no person religiously scrupulous shall be compelled to bear arms.<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Second_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution#cite_note-34" title="">[35]</a></sup></p> </div> </blockquote> <p>The Second Amendment was debated and modified during sessions of the House on <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/August_17" title="August 17">August 17</a> and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/August_20" title="August 20">August 20</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Second_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution#cite_note-35" title="">[36]</a></sup> These debates revolved primarily around risk of "mal-administration of the government" using the "religiously scrupulous" clause to destroy the militia as Great Britain had attempted to destroy the militia at the commencement of the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Revolution" title="American Revolution">American Revolution</a>. These concerns were addressed by modifying the final clause, and on <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/August_24" title="August 24">August 24</a>, the House sent the following version to the U.S. Senate:</p> <blockquote class="templatequote"> <div> <p>A well regulated militia, composed of the body of the people, being the best security of a free state, the right of the people to keep and bear arms shall not be infringed; but no one religiously scrupulous of bearing arms shall be compelled to render military service in person.</p> </div> </blockquote> <p>The next day, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/August_25" title="August 25">August 25</a>, the Senate received the Amendment from the House and entered it into the Senate Journal. When the Amendment was transcribed, the semicolon in the religious exemption portion was changed to a comma by the Senate scribe:</p> <blockquote class="templatequote"> <div> <p>A well regulated militia, composed of the body of the people, being the best security of a free state, the right of the people to keep and bear arms, shall not be infringed, but no one religiously scrupulous of bearing arms shall be compelled to render military service in person.<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Second_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution#cite_note-36" title="">[37]</a></sup></p> </div> </blockquote> <p>On <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/September_4" title="September 4">September 4</a>, the Senate voted to change the language of the Second Amendment by removing the definition of militia, and striking the conscientious objector clause:</p> <blockquote class="templatequote"> <div> <p>A well regulated militia, being the best security of a free state, the right of the people to keep and bear arms, shall not be infringed.<sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Second_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution#cite_note-37" title="">[38]</a></sup></p> </div> </blockquote> <p>The Senate returned to this Amendment for a final time on <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/September_9" title="September 9">September 9</a>. A proposal to insert the words "For the common defence" next to the words "Bear Arms" was defeated.<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Second_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution#cite_note-38" title="">[39]</a></sup> The Senate then slightly modified the language and voted to return the Bill of Rights to the House. The final version passed by the Senate was:</p> <blockquote class="templatequote"> <div> <p>A well regulated militia being the security of a free state, the right of the people to keep and bear arms shall not be infringed.</p> </div> </blockquote> <p>The House voted on <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/September_21" title="September 21">September 21</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1789" title="1789">1789</a> to accept the changes made by the Senate, but the Amendment as finally entered into the House journal contained the additional words "necessary to":</p> <blockquote class="templatequote"> <div> <p>A well regulated militia being necessary to the security of a free State, the right of the People to keep and bear arms shall not be infringed.<sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Second_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution#cite_note-39" title="">[40]</a></sup></p> </div> </blockquote> <p>This version was transmitted to the states for ratification.</p> <p><a name="Ratification" id="Ratification"></a></p> <h3><span class="editsection">[<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Second_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Ratification">edit</a>]</span> <span class="mw-headline">Ratification</span></h3> <p>On <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/December_15" title="December 15">December 15</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1791" title="1791">1791</a>, the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Virginia" title="Virginia">Virginia</a> legislature ratified the Bill of Rights, rounding out the requisite three-fourths of the states needed to make the Amendments part of the Constitution.</p> <p><a name="Historical_sources" id="Historical_sources"></a></p> <h3><span class="mw-headline">Historical sources</span></h3> <p>The House Journal<sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Second_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution#cite_note-40" title="">[41]</a></sup> and Senate Journal<sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Second_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution#cite_note-41" title="">[42]</a></sup> are the official records kept by the legislature at the time debate was taking place. Because these journals are often sparse, they are frequently augmented by the Annals of Congress<sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Second_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution#cite_note-42" title="">[43]</a></sup> (AoC) which were compiled forty to seventy years after the debates, using the best sources which could then be found, which at the time was primarily newspaper reports.</p> <p><i>The Debates in the Several State Conventions, on the Adoption of the Federal Constitution</i><sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Second_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution#cite_note-43" title="">[44]</a></sup> by Jonathan Elliot (1836), contains additional information concerning the desire by Antifederalists to amend the Constitution, and the intent of the amendments that were negotiated and adopted attempting to answer their concerns.</p> <p><a name="Early_commentary" id="Early_commentary"></a></p> <h2><span class="editsection">[<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Second_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Early commentary">edit</a>]</span> <span class="mw-headline">Early commentary</span></h2> <p>The earliest published commentary on the Second Amendment by a major constitutional theorist was by <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/St._George_Tucker" title="St. George Tucker">St. George Tucker</a>, also known as <i>The American Blackstone</i>. He authored a set of law books in 1803 that annotated Sir <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Blackstone" title="William Blackstone">William Blackstone's</a> <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Commentaries_on_the_Laws_of_England" title="Commentaries on the Laws of England">Commentaries on the Laws of England</a> (discussed at length later, under Colonial Rights) for American use, and that formed, in many cases, the sole legal written works read by many early American attorneys.<sup id="cite_ref-tucker_44-0" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Second_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution#cite_note-tucker-44" title="">[45]</a></sup> Tucker was a leading Jeffersonian constitutional theorist and was widely read, even by those who rejected his interpretation of the Constitution.</p> <p>In footnotes 40 and 41, he wrote: "The right of the people to keep and bear arms shall not be infringed. Amendments to C. U. S. Art. 4, and <b>this without any qualification as to their condition or degree, as is the case in the British government.</b>" and "Whoever examines the forest, and game laws in the British code, will readily perceive that the right of keeping arms is effectually taken away from the people of England. The commentator himself informs us, Vol. II, p. 412, "that the prevention of popular insurrections and resistance to government by disarming the bulk of the people, is a reason oftener meant than avowed by the makers of the forest and game laws."<sup id="cite_ref-tucker_44-1" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Second_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution#cite_note-tucker-44" title="">[45]</a></sup> Blackstone discussed the right of individual self defense in a separate section of his treatise on the common law of crimes. Tucker's annotations for that latter section made no mention of the Second Amendment but cited the standard works of English jurists such as Hawkins.<sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Second_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution#cite_note-45" title="">[46]</a></sup></p> <p>Further, Tucker writes of the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bill_of_Rights_1689" title="Bill of Rights 1689">English Bill of Rights</a>:</p> <blockquote class="templatequote"> <div> <p>The bill of rights, 1 W. and M, says Mr. Blackstone, (Vol. 1 p. 143), secures to the subjects of England the right of having arms for their defence, suitable to their condition and degree. In the construction of these game laws it seems to be held, that no person who is not qualified according to law to kill game, hath any right to keep a gun in his house. Now, as no person, (except the game-keeper of a lord or lady of a manor) is admitted to be qualified to kill game, unless he has 100l. per annum, &c. it follows that no others can keep a gun for their defence; so that the whole nation are completely disarmed, and left at the mercy of the government, under the pretext of preserving the breed of hares and partridges, for the exclusive use of the independent country gentlemen. <b>In America we may reasonably hope that the people will never cease to regard the right of keeping and bearing arms as the surest pledge of their liberty.</b><sup id="cite_ref-tucker_44-2" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Second_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution#cite_note-tucker-44" title="">[45]</a></sup></p> </div> </blockquote> <p>Tucker also wrote of the British,</p> <blockquote class="templatequote"> <div> <p>True it is, their bill of rights seems at first view to counteract this policy: but the right of bearing arms is confined to Protestants, and the words suitable to their condition and degree, have been interpreted to authorise the prohibition of keeping a gun or other engine for the destruction of game, to any farmer, or inferior tradesman, or other person not qualified to kill game. So that not one man in five hundred can keep a gun in his house without being subject to a penalty.<sup id="cite_ref-tucker_44-3" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Second_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution#cite_note-tucker-44" title="">[45]</a></sup></p> </div> </blockquote> <p>Another one of the most important early commentaries on the Second Amendment was the 1833 book <i>Commentaries on the U.S. Constitution</i> authored by Associate Justice of the Supreme Court <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joseph_Story" title="Joseph Story">Joseph Story</a>. Both sides in the modern gun debate have excerpted parts of this commentary to support their particular points of view:</p> <p>§ 1890 of the book describes the Second Amendment:</p> <blockquote class="templatequote"> <div> <p>The importance of this article will scarcely be doubted by any persons, who have duly reflected upon the subject. The militia is the natural defence of a free country against sudden foreign invasions, domestic insurrections, and domestic usurpations of power by rulers. It is against sound policy for a free people to keep up large military establishments and standing armies in time of peace, both from the enormous expenses, with which they are attended, and the facile means, which they afford to ambitious and unprincipled rulers, to subvert the government, or trample upon the rights of the people. The right of the citizens to keep and bear arms has justly been considered, as the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Palladium_%28mythology%29" title="Palladium (mythology)">palladium</a> of the liberties of a republic; since it offers a strong moral check against the usurpation and arbitrary power of rulers; and will generally, even if these are successful in the first instance, enable the people to resist and triumph over them. And yet, though this truth would seem so clear, and the importance of a well regulated militia would seem so undeniable, it cannot be disguised, that among the American people there is a growing indifference to any system of militia discipline, and a strong disposition, from a sense of its burthens, to be rid of all regulations. How it is practicable to keep the people duly armed without some organization, it is difficult to see. There is certainly no small danger, that indifference may lead to disgust, and disgust to contempt; and thus gradually undermine all the protection intended by this clause of our national bill of rights.<sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Second_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution#cite_note-46" title="">[47]</a></sup></p> </div> </blockquote> <p>§1202 of the book describes <i>Power over the Militia</i> and analyzes the origins of the Second Amendment. Justice Story clearly viewed the original meaning of the Amendment as a concession to moderate <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anti-Federalists" class="mw-redirect" title="Anti-Federalists">Anti-Federalists</a> who feared federal control over the militia:</p> <blockquote class="templatequote"> <div> <p>It is difficult fully to comprehend the influence of such objections, urged with much apparent sincerity and earnestness at such an eventful period. The answers then given seem to have been in their structure and reasoning satisfactory and conclusive. But the amendments proposed to the constitution (some of which have been since adopted) show, that the objections were extensively felt, and sedulously cherished. The power of congress over the militia (it was urged) was limited, and concurrent with that of the states. The right of governing them was confined to the single case of their being in the actual service of the United States, in some of the cases pointed out in the constitution. It was then, and then only, that they could be subjected by the general government to martial law. If congress did not choose to arm, organize, or discipline the militia, there would be an inherent right in the states to do it. All, that the constitution intended, was, to give a power to congress to ensure uniformity, and thereby efficiency. But, if congress refused, or neglected to perform the duty, the states had a perfect concurrent right, and might act upon it to the utmost extent of sovereignty. As little pretence was there to say, that congress possessed the exclusive power to suppress insurrections and repel invasions. Their power was merely competent to reach these objects; but did not, and could not, in regard to the militia, supersede the ordinary rights of the states. It was, indeed, made a duty of congress to provide for such cases; but this did not exclude the co-operation of the states. The idea of congress inflicting severe and ignominious punishments upon the militia in times of peace was absurd. It presupposed, that the representatives had an interest, and would intentionally take measures to oppress them, and alienate their affections. The appointment of the officers of the militia was exclusively in the states; and how could it be presumed, that such men would ever consent to the destruction of the rights or privileges of their fellow-citizens. The power to discipline and train the militia, except when in the actual service of the United States, was also exclusively vested in the states; and under such circumstances, it was secure against any serious abuses. It was added, that any project of disciplining the whole militia of the United States would be so utterly impracticable and mischievous, that it would probably never be attempted. The most, that could be done, would be to organize and discipline select corps; and these for all general purposes, either of the states, or of the Union, would be found to combine all, that was useful or desirable in militia services.<sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Second_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution#cite_note-47" title="">[48]</a></sup></p> </div> </blockquote> <p><a name="Historical_interpretations" id="Historical_interpretations"></a></p> <h2><span class="mw-headline">Historical interpretations</span></h2> <p>For over a century following the ratification of the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Bill_of_Rights" title="United States Bill of Rights">Bill of Rights</a>, the intended meaning of the Second Amendment, and how the Amendment applied, drew less interest than it does in modern times. The vast majority of regulation was done by states, and the first case law on weapons regulation dealt with state interpretations of the Second Amendment. The notable exception to this general rule was <i>Houston v. Moore</i> <span class="plainlinksneverexpand"><a href="http://caselaw.lp.findlaw.com/scripts/getcase.pl?navby=CASE&court=US&vol=18&page=1" class="external text" title="http://caselaw.lp.findlaw.com/scripts/getcase.pl?navby=CASE&court=US&vol=18&page=1" rel="nofollow">18 U.S. 1</a> (1820)</span>, where the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/U.S._Supreme_Court" class="mw-redirect" title="U.S. Supreme Court">U.S. Supreme Court</a> mentioned the Second Amendment in an aside, but Justice Story "misidentified"<sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Second_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution#cite_note-48" title="">[49]</a></sup> it as the "5th Amendment."</p> <p><a name="Early_commentary_about_the_Second_Amendment_in_state_courts_of_the_United_States" id="Early_commentary_about_the_Second_Amendment_in_state_courts_of_the_United_States"></a></p> <h3><span class="mw-headline">Early commentary about the Second Amendment in state courts of the United States</span></h3> <p>In <i>Bliss v. Commonwealth</i> (1822, KY),<sup id="cite_ref-bliss_v_commonwealth_49-0" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Second_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution#cite_note-bliss_v_commonwealth-49" title="">[50]</a></sup> which evaluated the right to bear arms in defence of themselves and the state pursuant to Section 28 of the Second Constitution of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kentucky" title="Kentucky">Kentucky</a> (1799), the right to bear arms in defense of themselves and the state was interpreted as an individual right, for the case of a concealed sword cane. This case has been described as about “a statute prohibiting the carrying of concealed weapons [that] was violative of the Second Amendment.”<sup id="cite_ref-1967hearing_50-0" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Second_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution#cite_note-1967hearing-50" title="">[51]</a></sup> Others, however, have seen no conflict with the Second Amendment by the Commonwealth of Kentucky's statute under consideration in <i>Bliss</i> since "The Kentucky law was aimed at concealed weapons. No one saw any conflict with the Second Amendment. As a matter of fact, most of the few people who considered the question at all believed amendments to the U.S. Constitution did not apply to state laws."<sup id="cite_ref-William_Weir._51-0" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Second_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution#cite_note-William_Weir.-51" title="">[52]</a></sup></p> <p>The Kentucky High Court stated in <i>Bliss</i>, "But it should not be forgotten, that it is not only a part of the right that is secured by the constitution; it is the right entire and complete, as it existed at the adoption of the constitution; and if any portion of that right be impaired, immaterial how small the part may be, and immaterial the order of time at which it be done, it is equally forbidden by the constitution."<sup id="cite_ref-bliss_v_commonwealth_49-1" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Second_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution#cite_note-bliss_v_commonwealth-49" title="">[50]</a></sup> The "constitution" mentioned in this quote refers to Kentucky's Constitution.<sup id="cite_ref-rkba1982_52-0" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Second_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution#cite_note-rkba1982-52" title="">[53]</a></sup> As mentioned in this quotation "as it existed at the adoption of the constitution" was the pre-existing right in force when Kentucky's First Constitution was drawn in 1799.<sup id="cite_ref-53" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Second_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution#cite_note-53" title="">[54]</a></sup></p> <p>The case prompted outrage in the Kentucky House, all the while recognizing that Section 23 of the Second Constitution of Kentucky (1799), which stated "That the right of the citizens to bear arms in defence of themselves and the State shall not be questioned."<sup id="cite_ref-54" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Second_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution#cite_note-54" title="">[55]</a></sup> did guarantee individuals the right to bear arms.</p> <p>The result was that the law of the Commonwealth of Kentucky was eventually over-turned by constitutional amendment with Section 26 in Kentucky's Third Constitution (1850) banning the future carrying of concealed weapons, while still asserting that the bearing of arms in defense of themselves and the state was an individual and collective right in the Commonwealth of Kentucky. This recognition, has remained to the present day in the Commonwealth of Kentucky's Fourth Constitution enacted in 1891, in Section 1, Article 7, that guarantees "The right to bear arms in defense of themselves and of the State, subject to the power of the General Assembly to enact laws to prevent persons from carrying concealed weapons." As noted in the Northern Kentucky Law Review Second Amendment Symposium: Rights in Conflict in the 1980’s, vol. 10, no. 1, 1982, p. 155, "The first state court decision resulting from the "right to bear arms" issue was <i>Bliss v. Commonwealth</i>. The court held that "the right of citizens to bear arms in defense of themselves and the State must be preserved entire, …" "This holding was unique because it stated that the right to bear arms is absolute and unqualified."<sup id="cite_ref-55" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Second_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution#cite_note-55" title="">[56]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-56" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Second_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution#cite_note-56" title="">[57]</a></sup></p> <p>The importance of <i>Bliss</i> is also seen from the defense subsequently given against a murder charge in Kentucky against Mattews Ward, who in 1852 pulled out a concealed pistol and fatally wounded his brother's teacher over an accusation regarding eating chestnuts in class. Ward's defense team consisted of eighteen lawyers, including U.S. Senator <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_J._Crittenden" title="John J. Crittenden">John Crittenden</a>, former Governor of Kentucky, and former attorney general of the United States. The defense successfully defended Ward in 1854 through an assertion that “a man has a right to carry arms; I am aware of nothing in the laws of God or man, prohibiting it. The Constitution of Kentucky and our Bill of Rights guarantee it. The Legislature once passed an act forbidding it, but it was decided unconstitutional, and overruled by our highest tribunal, the Court of Appeals.” As noted by Cornell, “Ward's lawyers took advantage of the doctrine advanced in <i>Bliss</i> and wrapped their client's action under the banner of a constitutional right to bear arms. Ward was acquitted.”<sup id="cite_ref-Saul_Cornell_AWRM_Ward_57-0" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Second_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution#cite_note-Saul_Cornell_AWRM_Ward-57" title="">[58]</a></sup></p> <p>In contrast, in <i>State v. Buzzard</i> (1842, Ark), the Arkansas high court adopted a militia-based, political right, reading of the right to bear arms under state law, and upheld the 21st section of the second article of the Arkansas Constitution that declared, "that the free white men of this State shall have a right to keep and bear arms for their common defense",<sup id="cite_ref-state_v_buzzard_58-0" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Second_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution#cite_note-state_v_buzzard-58" title="">[59]</a></sup> while rejecting a challenge to a statute prohibiting the carrying of concealed weapons. Buzzard had carried a concealed weapon and stood "indicted by virtue of the authority of the 13th section of an act of the Legislature prohibiting any person wearing a <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pistol" class="mw-redirect" title="Pistol">pistol</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dirk" title="Dirk">dirk</a>, large knife or sword-cane concealed as a weapon, <b>unless upon a journey</b>, under the penalties of fine and imprisonment." The Arkansas high court further declared "That the words "a well regulated militia being necessary for the security of a free State", and the words "common defense" clearly show the true intent and meaning of these Constitutions [i.e., Ark. and U.S.] and prove that it is a political and not an individual right, and, of course, that the State, in her legislative capacity, has the right to regulate and control it: This being the case, then the people, neither individually nor collectively, have the right to keep and bear arms." Joel Prentiss Bishop’s influential <i>Commentaries on the Law of Statutory Crimes</i> (1873) took Buzzard's militia-based interpretation, a view that Bishop characterized as the “Arkansas doctrine", as the orthodox view of the right to bear arms in American law.<sup id="cite_ref-state_v_buzzard_58-1" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Second_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution#cite_note-state_v_buzzard-58" title="">[59]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Saul_Cornell_AWRM_Bishop_59-0" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Second_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution#cite_note-Saul_Cornell_AWRM_Bishop-59" title="">[60]</a></sup></p> <p>Modern gun rights advocates have disputed this history, claiming that the <i>individual right</i> was the orthodox view of the right to bear arms under state law in the 19th century, citing the previously-mentioned <i>Bliss v. Commonwealth</i>, and even <i>State v. Buzzard</i>, which recognized the right of an individual to carry a weapon concealed, when <b>upon a journey</b>, in an affirmative defense. Similarly, political scientist Earl Kruschke has categorized both <i>Bliss</i> and <i>Buzzard</i> as being “cases illustrating the individual view.”<sup id="cite_ref-Kruschke_individual_rights_60-0" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Second_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution#cite_note-Kruschke_individual_rights-60" title="">[61]</a></sup> Since 1873, some legal and constitutional historians have sided with Bishop and not the individual rights model.<sup id="cite_ref-61" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Second_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution#cite_note-61" title="">[62]</a></sup> Other legal and constitutional historians have sided with the individual rights model.<sup id="cite_ref-Volokh_62-0" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Second_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution#cite_note-Volokh-62" title="">[63]</a></sup></p> <p>In 1905, the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kansas" title="Kansas">Kansas</a> Supreme Court in <i>Salina v. Blaksley</i><sup id="cite_ref-63" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Second_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution#cite_note-63" title="">[64]</a></sup> made the first <i>collective right</i> judicial interpretation.<sup id="cite_ref-Saul_Cornell_AWRM_Salina_64-0" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Second_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution#cite_note-Saul_Cornell_AWRM_Salina-64" title="">[65]</a></sup> The Kansas high court declared: "That the provision in question applies only to the right to bear arms as a member of the state militia, or some other military organization provided for by law, is also apparent from the second amendment to the federal Constitution, which says: "A well regulated militia, being necessary to the security of a free state, the right of the people to keep and bear arms shall not be infringed.""</p> <p>A modern formulation of the debate over the Second Amendment as an individual/collective rights dichotomy “was the emergence of the collective rights reading of <i>Cruikshank</i>"<sup id="cite_ref-Saul_Cornell_AWRM_Emery_65-0" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Second_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution#cite_note-Saul_Cornell_AWRM_Emery-65" title="">[66]</a></sup> that became better known when it was employed in “a short but influential article”<sup id="cite_ref-Saul_Cornell_AWRM_Emery_65-1" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Second_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution#cite_note-Saul_Cornell_AWRM_Emery-65" title="">[66]</a></sup> in the <i><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harvard_Law_Review" title="Harvard Law Review">Harvard Law Review</a></i> article in 1915 by the Chief Justice of the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maine" title="Maine">Maine</a> Supreme Court, Lucilius A. Emery. He noted that "the right guaranteed is not so much to the individual for his private quarrels or feuds as to the people collectively for the common defense against the common enemy, foreign or domestic."<sup id="cite_ref-Emery_66-0" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Second_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution#cite_note-Emery-66" title="">[67]</a></sup></p> <p><a name="Antebellum_and_Reconstruction" id="Antebellum_and_Reconstruction"></a></p> <h3><span class="mw-headline">Antebellum and Reconstruction</span></h3> <p>With <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abolitionism" title="Abolitionism">Abolition</a> and the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Civil_War" title="American Civil War">Civil War</a>, the question of the rights of freed slaves to carry arms and to belong to militia came to the attention of the Federal courts.</p> <p>In <i><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dred_Scott_v._Sandford" title="Dred Scott v. Sandford">Dred Scott v. Sandford</a></i>, <span class="plainlinksneverexpand"><a href="http://caselaw.lp.findlaw.com/scripts/getcase.pl?navby=CASE&court=US&vol=60&page=393" class="external text" title="http://caselaw.lp.findlaw.com/scripts/getcase.pl?navby=CASE&court=US&vol=60&page=393" rel="nofollow">60 U.S. 393</a> (1856)</span> (the "Dred Scott Decision"), the Supreme Court indicated that: "It would give to persons of the negro race, who were recognized as citizens in any one State of the Union …the full liberty …to keep and carry arms wherever they went."</p> <p>The Dred Scott Decision contains additional significant wording.</p> <blockquote class="templatequote"> <div> <p>More especially, it cannot be believed that the large slaveholding States regarded them as included in the word citizens, or would have consented to a Constitution which might compel them to receive them in that character from another State. For if they were so received, and <b>entitled to the privileges and immunities of citizens</b>, it would exempt them from the operation of the special laws and from the police regulations which they considered to be necessary for their own safety. It would give to persons of the negro race, who were recognized as citizens in any one State of the Union, the right to enter every other State whenever they pleased, singly or in companies, without pass or passport, and without obstruction, to sojourn there as long as they pleased, to go where they pleased at every hour of the day or night without molestation, unless they committed some violation of law for which a white man would be punished; and it would give them the full liberty of speech in public and in private upon all subjects upon which its own citizens might speak; to hold public meetings upon political affairs, <b>and to keep and carry arms wherever they went</b>.(emphasis added)</p> </div> </blockquote> <p>When the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fourteenth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Fourteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution">Fourteenth Amendment</a> was drafted, Representative <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Bingham" title="John Bingham">John A. Bingham</a> of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ohio" title="Ohio">Ohio</a> used the Court's own phrase "privileges and immunities of citizens" to include the first Eight Amendments of the Bill of Rights under its protection and guard these rights against state legislation.<sup id="cite_ref-Kerrigan_67-0" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Second_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution#cite_note-Kerrigan-67" title="">[68]</a></sup></p> <p>The debate in the Congress on the Fourteenth Amendment after the Civil War also concentrated on what the Southern States were doing to harm the newly freed slaves. One particular concern was the disarming of former slaves.</p> <p>The Second Amendment attracted serious judicial attention with the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reconstruction_era_of_the_United_States" title="Reconstruction era of the United States">Reconstruction</a> era case of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_v._Cruikshank" title="United States v. Cruikshank">United States v. Cruikshank</a> which ruled that the Fourteenth Amendment did not cause the Bill of Rights, including the Second Amendment, to limit the powers of the State governments; stating that the Second Amendment "has no other effect than to restrict the powers of the national government."</p> <p><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Akhil_Reed_Amar" title="Akhil Reed Amar">Akhil Reed Amar</a> noted in the Yale Law Journal<sup id="cite_ref-68" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Second_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution#cite_note-68" title="">[69]</a></sup> the basis of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Common_law" title="Common law">common law</a> for the first ten amendments of the U.S. Constitution, which would include the Second Amendment, "following <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Randolph_Tucker_%281823-1897%29" title="John Randolph Tucker (1823-1897)">John Randolph Tucker's</a> famous oral argument in the 1887 Chicago anarchist <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Haymarket_affair" title="Haymarket affair">Haymarket riot</a> case, <i><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/August_Spies" title="August Spies">Spies</a> v. Illinois</i>":{{Quote|Though originally the first ten Amendments were adopted as limitations on Federal power, yet in so far as they secure and recognize <b>fundamental rights—common law rights—of the man, they make them privileges and immunities of the man as citizen of the United States</b>…<sup id="cite_ref-Amar1992_2-1" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Second_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution#cite_note-Amar1992-2" title="">[3]</a></sup></p> <p><a name="The_Second_Amendment_and_modern_politics" id="The_Second_Amendment_and_modern_politics"></a></p> <h3><span class="mw-headline">The Second Amendment and modern politics</span></h3> <p>During the last four decades, discussions of the Second Amendment have featured in American politics most notably in relationship to gun politics, and to a smaller extent towards the role, if any, of a modern militia in society and even to gays in the military.<sup id="cite_ref-isbn_0822330318_69-0" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Second_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution#cite_note-isbn_0822330318-69" title="">[70]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Cramer_70-0" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Second_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution#cite_note-Cramer-70" title="">[71]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-SB1441_71-0" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Second_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution#cite_note-SB1441-71" title="">[72]</a></sup></p> <p>The modern gun control politics involves fundamental Second Amendment questions such as:</p> <ul><li>What is meant by "well regulated", relative to "Militia"?</li><li>Who or what does the Amendment mean by "Militia"?</li><li>Who does the Amendment mean by "the People"?</li><li>What does "keep and bear arms" mean?</li><li>What does "shall not be infringed" mean?</li></ul> <p><a name=".22Well-regulated.22"></a></p> <h4><span class="mw-headline">"Well-regulated"</span></h4> <p>Regarding one interpretation of "well-regulated", during oral arguments in <i><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/District_of_Columbia_v._Heller" title="District of Columbia v. Heller">District of Columbia v. Heller</a></i>, No. 07-290, on <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/March_18" title="March 18">March 18</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2008" title="2008">2008</a>, in regards to Mr. Dellinger speaking of a “well-regulated militia”, a question arose from the bench:<sup id="cite_ref-Scalia_72-0" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Second_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution#cite_note-Scalia-72" title="">[73]</a></sup></p> <blockquote class="templatequote"> <div> <p>JUSTICE SCALIA: Doesn't “well regulated” mean “well trained”? It doesn't mean – it doesn't mean “massively regulated.” It means “well trained.”</p> </div> </blockquote> <p><a name=".22Militia.22"></a></p> <h4> <span class="mw-headline">"Militia"</span></h4> <p>All able bodied men, 17 to 45 of age, are ultimately eligible to be called up into military service and belong to the class known as the Reserve Militia, also known as the unorganized militia. Able bodied men who are not eligible for inclusion in the unorganized militia pool are those aliens not having declared their intent to become citizens of the United States (10 USC 311) and former regular component veterans of the armed forces who have reached the age of 64 (32 USC 313). All female citizens who are members of National Guard units are also included in the unorganized militia pool (10 USC 311).<sup id="cite_ref-dod_73-0" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Second_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution#cite_note-dod-73" title="">[74]</a></sup></p> <p>Other persons who are exempt from call to duty (10 USC 312) and are not therefore in the unorganized militia pool include:<sup id="cite_ref-dod_73-1" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Second_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution#cite_note-dod-73" title="">[74]</a></sup></p> <ul><li>The Vice President (also constitutionally the President of the Senate, that body which confirms the appointment of senior armed forces officers made by the Commander in Chief).</li><li>The judicial and executive officers of the United States, the several States and Territories, and Puerto Rico.</li><li>Members of the armed forces, except members who are not on active duty.</li><li>Customhouse clerks.</li><li>Persons employed by the United States in the transmission of mail.</li><li>Workmen employed in armories, arsenals, and naval shipyards of the United States.</li><li>Pilots on navigable waters.</li><li>Mariners in the sea service of a citizen of, or a merchant in, the United States.</li></ul> <p><a name=".22The_People.22"></a></p> <h4><span class="editsection">[<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Second_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: "The People"">edit</a>]</span> <span class="mw-headline">"The People"</span></h4> <p>Regarding a meaning of "the People" in another context, the U.S. Supreme Court commented in <i><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_v._Verdugo-Urquidez" title="United States v. Verdugo-Urquidez">United States v. Verdugo-Urquidez</a></i>, <span class="plainlinksneverexpand"><a href="http://caselaw.lp.findlaw.com/scripts/getcase.pl?navby=CASE&court=US&vol=494&page=259" class="external text" title="http://caselaw.lp.findlaw.com/scripts/getcase.pl?navby=CASE&court=US&vol=494&page=259" rel="nofollow">494 U.S. 259</a> (1990)</span>,</p> <blockquote class="templatequote"> <div> <p>"the people" seems to be a term of art used in select parts of the Constitution and contrasts with the words "person" and "accused" used in Articles of the Fifth and Sixth Amendments regulating criminal procedures. This suggests that "the people" refers to a class of persons who are part of a national community or who have otherwise developed sufficient connection with this country to be considered part of that community.</p> </div> </blockquote> <p>However, as noted earlier by the Supreme Court in 1886, the Second Amendment is not restricted to American citizens. In <i>Presser v. Illinois</i> <span class="plainlinksneverexpand"><a href="http://caselaw.lp.findlaw.com/scripts/getcase.pl?navby=CASE&court=US&vol=116&page=252" class="external text" title="http://caselaw.lp.findlaw.com/scripts/getcase.pl?navby=CASE&court=US&vol=116&page=252" rel="nofollow">116 U.S. 252</a> (1886)</span> before the high court, Presser made an attempt to link the Second Amendment as being a privilege or immunity of citizens of the United States. This attempt was found lacking when the Supreme Court stated</p> <blockquote class="templatequote"> <div> <p>The plaintiff in error [Presser] next insists that the sections of the Military Code of Illinois under which he was indicted are an invasion of that clause of the first section of the fourteenth amendment to the constitution of the United States which declares: 'No state shall make or enforce any law which shall abridge the privileges or immunities of citizens of the United States.'</p> </div> </blockquote> <p>Additionally, the Supreme Court stated in <i>Presser v. Illinois</i>,</p> <blockquote class="templatequote"> <div> <p>The constitution and laws of the United States will be searched in vain for any support to the view that these [Second Amendment] rights are privileges and immunities of citizens of the United States…</p> </div> </blockquote> <p><a name=".22To_keep_and_bear_arms.22"></a></p> <h4> <span class="mw-headline">"To keep and bear arms"</span></h4> <p><i>See Also: <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Right_to_arms" class="mw-redirect" title="Right to arms">Right to arms</a></i></p> <p>The meanings of the term "keep and bear arms" are integral to the debate and much of the amendment's jurisprudence relies on such interpretations.</p> <p>Relative to the "bear arms" meanings, one study found "…that the overwhelming preponderance of usage of 300 examples of the 'bear arms' expression in public discourse in early America was in an unambiguous, explicitly military context in a figurative (and euphemistic) sense to stand for military service".<sup id="cite_ref-74" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Second_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution#cite_note-74" title="">[75]</a></sup> Further, the <i>Oxford English Dictionary on Historical Principles</i> declares that a meaning of "to bear arms" is a figurative usage meaning "to serve as a soldier, do military service, fight".</p> <p>The term is used in this sense in the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Declaration_of_Independence" title="United States Declaration of Independence">Declaration of Independence</a>. Referring to <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_III_of_the_United_Kingdom" title="George III of the United Kingdom">King George III's</a> forcing Americans into military service it says:</p> <blockquote class="templatequote"> <div> <p>He has constrained our fellow Citizens taken Captive on the high Seas to bear Arms against their Country.</p> </div> </blockquote> <p>In <i>Amyette v. State</i> the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tennessee_Supreme_Court" title="Tennessee Supreme Court">Tennessee Supreme Court</a> stated in 1840 that the term "bear arms" "has a military sense, and no other" and further stated "A man in the pursuit of deer, elk, and buffaloes might carry his rifle every day for forty years, and yet it would never be said of him that he had borne arms; much less could it be said that a private citizen bears arms because he has a dirk or pistol concealed under his clothes, or a spear in a cane."<sup id="cite_ref-75" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Second_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution#cite_note-75" title="">[76]</a></sup></p> <p>The word "keep" has also been subject to scrutiny. In the recent case of <i>Parker v. District of Columbia</i> (under review by the United States Supreme Court under the name <i><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/District_of_Columbia_v._Heller" title="District of Columbia v. Heller">District of Columbia v. Heller</a></i>, below), the court analyzed two different interpretations, one claiming "keep" meant to upkeep the weapons, and another claiming "keep" meant personal retention. From the opinion: "Turning again to Dr. Johnson's <i>Dictionary</i> , we see the first three definitions of keep are "to retain; not to lose," "to have custody," "to preserve; not to let go." Johnson, <i>supra</i> , at 540. We think "keep" is a straightforward term that implies ownership or possession of a functional weapon by an individual for private use."<sup id="cite_ref-04-7041a_76-0" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Second_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution#cite_note-04-7041a-76" title="">[77]</a></sup></p> <p>In a released Senate report on the Right to Keep and Bear Arms, Senator <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orrin_G._Hatch" class="mw-redirect" title="Orrin G. Hatch">Orrin G. Hatch</a>, chairman of the U.S. Senate Judiciary Committee's Subcommittee on the Constitution, and well known gun rights proponent, states</p> <blockquote class="templatequote"> <div> <p>They argue that the Second Amendment's words "right of the people" mean "a right of the state" — apparently overlooking the impact of those same words when used in the First and Fourth Amendments. The "right of the people" to assemble or to be free from unreasonable searches and seizures is not contested as an individual guarantee. Still they ignore consistency and claim that the right to "bear arms" relates only to military uses. This not only violates a consistent constitutional reading of "right of the people" but also ignores that the second amendment protects a right to "keep" arms. "When our ancestors forged a land "conceived in liberty", they did so with musket and rifle. When they reacted to attempts to dissolve their free institutions, and established their identity as a free nation, they did so as a nation of armed freemen. When they sought to record forever a guarantee of their rights, they devoted one full amendment out of ten to nothing but the protection of their right to keep and bear arms against governmental interference. Under my chairmanship the Subcommittee on the Constitution will concern itself with a proper recognition of, and respect for, this right most valued by free men."<sup id="cite_ref-rkba1982_52-1" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Second_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution#cite_note-rkba1982-52" title="">[53]</a></sup></p> </div> </blockquote> <p>For a more recent judicial interpretation, the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Court_of_Appeals_for_the_Fifth_Circuit" title="United States Court of Appeals for the Fifth Circuit">United States Court of Appeals for the Fifth Circuit</a> stated in 2001 that</p> <blockquote class="templatequote"> <div> <p>there are numerous instances of the phrase "bear arms" being used to describe a civilian's carrying of arms. Early constitutional provisions or declarations of rights in at least some ten different states speak of the right of the "people" [or "citizen" or "citizens"] "to bear arms in defense of themselves [or "himself"] and the state", or equivalent words, thus indisputably reflecting that under common usage "bear arms" was in no sense restricted to bearing arms in military service.<sup id="cite_ref-77" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Second_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution#cite_note-77" title="">[78]</a></sup></p> </div> </blockquote> <p>Several scholars have challenged the Fifth Circuit's history.<sup id="cite_ref-cornell_78-0" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Second_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution#cite_note-cornell-78" title="">[79]</a></sup> Several of the earliest state constitutions used variants of the Pennsylvania (<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/September_28" title="September 28">September 28</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1776" title="1776">1776</a>) model, affirming a right to "bear arms in defense of themselves and the state." Thus, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/North_Carolina" title="North Carolina">North Carolina's</a> declaration of rights (<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/December_18" title="December 18">December 18</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1776" title="1776">1776</a>) stated that "The people have a right to bear arms, for the defence of the State; and, as standing armies, in time of peace, are dangerous to liberty, they ought not to be kept up; and that the military should be kept under strict subordination to, and governed by, the civil power."<sup id="cite_ref-79" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Second_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution#cite_note-79" title="">[80]</a></sup> Less than two decades later (1796), Tennessee affirmed that "The freemen of this State have a right to keep and bear arms for their common defence."<sup id="cite_ref-80" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Second_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution#cite_note-80" title="">[81]</a></sup></p> <p>In <i><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/District_of_Columbia_v._Heller" title="District of Columbia v. Heller">District of Columbia v. Heller</a></i>, No. 07-290, the Supreme Court, by a 5-4 vote, ruled that the Second Amendment protected an individual right to keep and bear arms stating:</p> <blockquote class="templatequote"> <div> <p>"In sum, we hold that the District’s ban on handgun possession in the home violates the Second Amendment, as does its prohibition against rendering any lawful firearm in the home operable for the purpose of immediate self-defense."</p> </div> </blockquote> <p><a name=".E2.80.9CShall_not_be_infringed.E2.80.9D"></a></p> <h4><span class="mw-headline">“Shall not be infringed”</span></h4> <p>Regarding a meaning of "shall not be infringed", the Supreme Court stated in <i>Robertson v. Baldwin</i>, <span class="plainlinksneverexpand"><a href="http://caselaw.lp.findlaw.com/scripts/getcase.pl?navby=CASE&court=US&vol=165&page=275" class="external text" title="http://caselaw.lp.findlaw.com/scripts/getcase.pl?navby=CASE&court=US&vol=165&page=275" rel="nofollow">165 U.S. 275</a> (1897)</span>,</p> <blockquote> <p>“The law is perfectly well settled that the first ten amendments to the Constitution, commonly known as the "Bill of Rights," were not intended to lay down any novel principles of government, but simply to embody certain guaranties and immunities which we had inherited from our English ancestors, and which had, from time immemorial, been subject to certain well recognized exceptions arising from the necessities of the case. In incorporating these principles into the fundamental law, there was no intention of disregarding the exceptions, which continued to be recognized as if they had been formally expressed. Thus, the freedom of speech and of the press (Art. I) does not permit the publication of libels, blasphemous or indecent articles, or other publications injurious to public morals or private reputation; <b>the right of the people to keep and bear arms (Art. II) is not infringed by laws prohibiting the carrying of concealed weapons;.</b>.."</p> </blockquote> <p><a name="Models_of_interpretation" id="Models_of_interpretation"></a></p> <h4> <span class="mw-headline">Models of interpretation</span></h4> <p>Modern legal theorists have identified three models used to interpret the Second Amendment. Professor Michael Dorf has described these models as follows:<sup id="cite_ref-81" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Second_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution#cite_note-81" title="">[82]</a></sup></p> <blockquote class="templatequote"> <div> <p>The first and second both emphasize the preamble, or "purpose" clause, of the Amendment — the words "A well regulated Militia, being necessary to the security of a free State." The third does not. The first model holds that the right to keep and bear arms belongs to the people collectively rather than to individuals, because the right's only purpose is to enable states to maintain a militia; it is not for individuals' benefit. The second model is similar to the first. It holds that the right to keep and bear arms exists only for individuals actively serving in the militia, and then only pursuant to such regulations as may be prescribed. Under either of the first two models, a private citizen has no right to possess a firearm for personal use. But the court rejected these two models in favor of a third, the individual rights model. Under this third model, the Second Amendment protects a right of individuals to own and possess firearms, much as the First Amendment protects a right of individuals to engage in free speech.</p> </div> </blockquote> <p><a name="Federal_government" id="Federal_government"></a></p> <h2><span class="mw-headline">Federal government</span></h2> <p><a name="Executive_branch" id="Executive_branch"></a></p> <h3> <span class="mw-headline">Executive branch</span></h3> <p>On <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/December_3" title="December 3">December 3</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1901" title="1901">1901</a>, President <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theodore_Roosevelt" title="Theodore Roosevelt">Theodore Roosevelt</a> called for a reform of the militia system, declaring to Congress that:</p> <blockquote class="templatequote"> <div> <p><i>our militia law is obsolete and worthless. The organization and armament of the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_National_Guard" class="mw-redirect" title="United States National Guard">National Guard</a>…should be made identical with those provided for the regular forces. The obligations and duties of the Guard in time of war should be carefully defined, and a system established by law under which the method of procedure of raising volunteer forces should be prescribed in advance. It is utterly impossible in the excitement and haste of impending war to do this satisfactorily if the arrangements have not been made long beforehand.</i></p> </div> </blockquote> <p>In response, Congress passed the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Militia_Act_of_1903" title="Militia Act of 1903">Militia Act of 1903</a>, which established an organized militia known as the National Guard. Modern warfare needed trained men with modern weaponry, and the law provided for training these men in a regular army as well as in the National Guard. Although the Guard is the descendant in many ways of the old unorganized militia, it is a far more disciplined and trained entity, since their program is now held to high standards set by the regular army. The members receive their weapons from the national government and do not own them individually.</p> <p>Following the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Assassination" title="Assassination">assassination</a> attempt on President-elect <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Franklin_Delano_Roosevelt" class="mw-redirect" title="Franklin Delano Roosevelt">Franklin Delano Roosevelt</a> in 1933, President Roosevelt advocated and the Congress passed the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Firearms_Act" title="National Firearms Act">National Firearms Act</a> of 1934. The general mood at the time of the assassination attempt was that a deranged man had committed the act.<sup id="cite_ref-82" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Second_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution#cite_note-82" title="">[83]</a></sup></p> <p>The right to bear arms was occasionally addressed by President <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ulysses_S._Grant" title="Ulysses S. Grant">Ulysses S. Grant</a> who stated in an address to Congress on <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/April_19" title="April 19">April 19</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1872" title="1872">1872</a><sup id="cite_ref-83" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Second_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution#cite_note-83" title="">[84]</a></sup> that "to deprive colored citizens of the right to bear arms" was among the goals of the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ku_Klux_Klan" title="Ku Klux Klan">Ku Klux Klan</a>. Ulysses Grant later served as president of the National Rifle Association in 1883.</p> <p>In 2001, the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Justice_Department" class="mw-redirect" title="United States Justice Department">Justice Department</a> under <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Attorney_General" title="United States Attorney General">Attorney General</a> <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Ashcroft" title="John Ashcroft">John Ashcroft</a> issued a memorandum opinion stating that the Second Amendment protects an individual right to bear arms.<sup id="cite_ref-84" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Second_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution#cite_note-84" title="">[85]</a></sup> Some critics have asserted that Ashcroft's objectivity is questionable, considering his lifelong membership in the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Rifle_Association" title="National Rifle Association">National Rifle Association</a>, an organization of individual gun right proponents (though he was not acting in an official capacity of the association at the time).<sup class="noprint Template-Fact"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources since May 2008" style="white-space: nowrap;">[<i><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a></i>]</span></sup></p> <p>In 2004, the Justice Department under Ashcroft issued "Whether the Second Amendment Secures an Individual Right", a lengthy memorandum opinion tracing the historical development of the Second Amendment supporting its earlier conclusion. The opinion stated:</p> <blockquote class="templatequote"> <div> <p>the Second Amendment secures a personal right of individuals, not a collective right that may be invoked only by a State or a quasi-collective right restricted to those persons who serve in organized militia units.<sup id="cite_ref-olc2004_85-0" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Second_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution#cite_note-olc2004-85" title="">[86]</a></sup></p> </div> </blockquote> <p><a name="Legislative_branch" id="Legislative_branch"></a></p> <h3><span class="mw-headline">Legislative branch</span></h3> <p>The <b><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Militia_Act_of_1903" title="Militia Act of 1903">Militia Act of 1903</a></b> created the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_National_Guard" class="mw-redirect" title="United States National Guard">United States National Guard</a> by federalizing a portion of the state militias which were converted into regular troops kept in reserve for the United States Army. In 1933, Congress reorganized the National Guard under its power to "raise and support armies" in order to "create the National Guard of the United States as a component of the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Army" title="United States Army">Army</a>". This was done to avoid the constitutional limits on deployment of the militia which can be called forth only "to execute the laws of the Union, suppress insurrections and repel invasions."<sup id="cite_ref-86" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Second_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution#cite_note-86" title="">[87]</a></sup></p> <p>The <b>1934 National Firearms Act</b> ostensibly was brought about by the lawlessness and rise of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Organized_crime" title="Organized crime">gangster</a> culture during the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prohibition_Era" class="mw-redirect" title="Prohibition Era">Prohibition Era</a>, such as the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/St._Valentine%27s_Day_massacre" class="mw-redirect" title="St. Valentine's Day massacre">St. Valentine's Day massacre</a> on <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/February_14" title="February 14">February 14</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1929" title="1929">1929</a>. President Franklin D. Roosevelt hoped this act would eliminate automatic-fire weapons like <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Machine_gun" title="Machine gun">machine guns</a> from America's streets. Other firearms, such as short-barreled <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shotgun" title="Shotgun">shotguns</a> and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rifle" title="Rifle">rifles</a>, gun accessories like silencers, and other "gadget-type" firearms hidden in canes and such were also targeted. In addition, the creation of a $200 tax for sawed-off shotguns, typically worth at most $10, which applied each and every time the firearm changed hands, would enhance tax revenue for the Federal Government. Initially, the act included handguns, but the complaints of women who could more easily handle handguns than long guns reversed this additional position, and handguns were not included in the National Firearms Act.</p> <p>However, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prohibition_in_the_United_States" title="Prohibition in the United States">Prohibition in the United States</a> was repealed by the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Twenty-first_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Twenty-first Amendment to the United States Constitution">Twenty-first Amendment</a> on <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/December_5" title="December 5">December 5</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1933" title="1933">1933</a>, and the gangster era largely ended with Prohibition (after Prohibition ended, the illegal distributors of beer and whiskey, who had been some of the largest buyers of automatic weapons and sawed-off shotguns for illegal purposes, largely changed to other lines of work where automatic weapons were not needed. Legal breweries and distributors had no further need for automatic weapons for increasing market share). According to some authors such as <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Ross_%28author%29" title="John Ross (author)">John Ross</a> in his novel <i><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unintended_Consequences" title="Unintended Consequences">Unintended Consequences</a></i>, the 1934 National Firearms Act was brought about instead to provide jobs during the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Depression" title="Great Depression">Great Depression</a> for government agents who previously had been enforcing prohibition laws and who otherwise would have been out of work and unable to find new jobs.</p> <p>Likewise, the creation of a $200 tax for an item worth at most $10 generated almost no revenue. During the first few years after the National Firearms Act was created, less than two dozen sawed off shotguns were registered and had the tax paid. As a revenue enhancing measure, the act produced essentially no revenue while providing considerable work for government agents.</p> <p>The <b>Federal Firearms Act</b> of 1938 was aimed at those involved in selling and shipping firearms through interstate or foreign commerce channels.</p> <p>In 1964, two codes were passed. According to 18 U.S.C. § 1715, "Pistols, revolvers, and other firearms capable of being concealed on the person" became nonmailable, except in limited circumstances, in response to highly-public and televised handgun assassinations, such as of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lee_Harvey_Oswald" title="Lee Harvey Oswald">Lee Harvey Oswald</a> in 1963. Although critics at the time deemed this an <i>infringement</i> of the Second Amendment right of the People to keep and bear arms, the courts ruled that this law did not preclude the People to keep and bear arms; it regulated only the purchase of concealable arms via <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Postal_Service" title="United States Postal Service">U.S. Postal mail</a>. With the passage of 49 U.S.C. § 1472, carrying weapons aboard aircraft, even openly, became prohibited.</p> <p>The 1968 <b><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gun_Control_Act" class="mw-redirect" title="Gun Control Act">Gun Control Act</a></b> (GCA68) was passed in response to the assassination of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_F._Kennedy" title="John F. Kennedy">John F. Kennedy</a>, who was killed by a mail-order rifle that belonged to Lee Harvey Oswald. The subsequent assassinations of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Martin_Luther_King" class="mw-redirect" title="Martin Luther King">Martin Luther King</a> and presidential candidate <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_F._Kennedy" title="Robert F. Kennedy">Robert F. Kennedy</a> fueled its quick passage. License requirements were expanded to include more dealers, and more detailed record keeping was expected of them; handgun sales over state lines were restricted; the list of persons dealers could not sell to grew to include those convicted of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Felony" title="Felony">felonies</a> (with some exceptions), those found <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mental_disorder" title="Mental disorder">mentally incompetent</a>, drug users, and others. The act also defined persons who were banned from possessing firearms.</p> <p>The key element of this bill outlawed mail order sales of rifles and shotguns; up until this law, mail order consumers only had to sign a statement that they were over 21 years of age for a handgun to be shipped by common carrier (18 for rifle or shotgun), since the earlier 1964 law had already prohibited most handguns from the U.S. Postal mail; it also detailed more persons who were banned from possessing certain guns and further restricted shotgun and rifles sales.</p> <p>In the "Report of the Subcommittee on the Constitution of the Committee on the Judiciary, United States Senate, 97th Congress, Second Session" (February 1982), a bipartisan subcommittee (consisting of 3 Republicans and 2 Democrats) of the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Senate" title="United States Senate">United States Senate</a> investigated the Second Amendment and reported upon their findings. This report included the following opinions:</p> <blockquote class="templatequote"> <div> <p>The conclusion is thus inescapable that the history, concept, and wording of the second amendment to the Constitution of the United States, as well as its interpretation by every major commentator and court in the first half century after its ratification, indicates that what is protected is an individual right of a private citizen to own and carry firearms in a peaceful manner.<sup id="cite_ref-rkba1982_52-2" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Second_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution#cite_note-rkba1982-52" title="">[53]</a></sup></p> </div> </blockquote> <p>It concluded that seventy-five percent of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BATF" class="mw-redirect" title="BATF">BATF</a> prosecutions were "constitutionally improper", especially on Second Amendment issues.<sup id="cite_ref-87" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Second_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution#cite_note-87" title="">[88]</a></sup></p> <p>The 1986 <b>McClure-Volkmer Act</b> addressed those BATF abuses noted in the 1982 Senate Judiciary Subcommittee opinions. It re-opened interstate sales of long guns on a limited basis, allowed ammunition shipments through the U.S. Postal Service (a repeal of part of GCA68), ended record keeping on ammunition sales, except for armor piercing, permitted travel between states supportive of Second Amendment rights even through those areas less supportive of these rights, and addressed several other issues that had effectively restricted the Second Amendment rights of the People. However, the act also contained a provision that banned the sale of machine guns manufactured after the date of enactment to civilians, restricting sales of these weapons to the military and law enforcement. Thus, in the ensuing years, the limited supply of these arms available to civilians has caused an enormous increase in their price, with most costing in excess of $10,000. Political scientist Earl Kruschke states, however, regarding these fully-automatic firearms owned by private citizens in the United States, that "approximately 175,000 automatic firearms have been licensed by the Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco, and Firearms (the federal agency responsible for administration of the law) and evidence suggests that <b>none</b> of these weapons has ever been used to commit a violent crime."<sup id="cite_ref-Kruschke_full_auto_88-0" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Second_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution#cite_note-Kruschke_full_auto-88" title="">[89]</a></sup></p> <p>The 1993 <b><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brady_Handgun_Violence_Prevention_Act" title="Brady Handgun Violence Prevention Act">Brady Handgun Violence Prevention Act</a></b> initially provided a five-day waiting period for handgun purchases, which expired on <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/November_30" title="November 30">November 30</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1998" title="1998">1998</a>. It was replaced by a mandatory, computerized criminal background checking system to be conducted prior to any firearm purchase from a federally-licensed firearms dealer.</p> <p><a name="Judicial_branch" id="Judicial_branch"></a></p> <h3> <span class="mw-headline">Judicial branch</span></h3> <dl><dd> <div class="noprint relarticle mainarticle"><i>Main article: <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Firearm_case_law" class="mw-redirect" title="Firearm case law">Firearm case law</a></i></div> </dd></dl> <p>The question of the U.S. Supreme Court rulings, or lack thereof, on the meaning of the Second Amendment has left supporters on all sides of the debate open to interpret the actions of the court as they see fit. Until recently, United States federal courts generally interpreted the Second Amendment to protect a "collective right" to keep and bear arms.<sup id="cite_ref-89" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Second_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution#cite_note-89" title="">[90]</a></sup> Two recent exceptions to this trend have occurred in federal circuit courts: The 2001 Fifth Circuit court ruling <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_v._Emerson" title="United States v. Emerson">United States v. Emerson</a> and the 2007 D.C. Circuit court ruling <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/District_of_Columbia_v._Heller" title="District of Columbia v. Heller">Parker v. District of Columbia</a>, both of which ruled that the Second Amendment protected an "individual right" to keep and bear arms. Presently, nine of the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_court_of_appeals" title="United States court of appeals">United States Courts of Appeals</a> have supported a collective rights model, while two <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_court_of_appeals" title="United States court of appeals">United States Courts of Appeals</a> have supported an individual rights model, and the Second Circuit court has not addressed the question.<sup id="cite_ref-90" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Second_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution#cite_note-90" title="">[91]</a></sup> It should be noted that a ruling of a <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_court_of_appeals" title="United States court of appeals">United States Court of Appeals</a> applies only to the states (and other jurisdictions) that are within the "circuit" in which that ruling was made.<sup id="cite_ref-91" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Second_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution#cite_note-91" title="">[92]</a></sup></p> <p><a name="Current_judicial_precedents" id="Current_judicial_precedents"></a></p> <h4> <span class="mw-headline">Current judicial precedents</span></h4> <p>At present, with certain exceptions and disputes, the courts generally find it acceptable under the Second Amendment for federal, state, and local jurisdictions to vary widely between jurisdictions<sup id="cite_ref-92" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Second_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution#cite_note-92" title="">[93]</a></sup> and permit court decisions to be rendered according to local law. The Federal District courts have not ruled uniformly and the Supreme Court has not yet ruled uniformly.</p> <p>Although the courts permit laws and regulations to vary locally, some jurisdictions do not have these laws. For example, most jurisdictions do not require handgun owner identification cards, nor do they require the presentation of any identification to buy ammunition. Some local jurisdictions in the United States have more restrictive laws, such as <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Washington%2C_D.C." title="Washington, D.C.">Washington, D.C.'s</a> Firearms Control Regulations Act, enacted in 1976, that bans residents from owning handguns, and that requires permitted firearms be disassembled and locked with a trigger lock. On <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/March_9" title="March 9">March 9</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2007" title="2007">2007</a>, the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Court_of_Appeals_for_the_District_of_Columbia_Circuit" title="United States Court of Appeals for the District of Columbia Circuit">D.C. Circuit Court of Appeals</a> ruled this Washington, D.C. handgun ban unconstitutional in <i>Parker v. District of Columbia</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-bloomberg_93-0" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Second_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution#cite_note-bloomberg-93" title="">[94]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-94" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Second_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution#cite_note-94" title="">[95]</a></sup> As previously noted, on <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/June_26" title="June 26">June 26</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2008" title="2008">2008</a>, the United States Supreme Court struck down a Washington, D.C. gun ban, stating: "In sum, we hold that the District's ban on handgun possession violates the Second Amendment."</p> <p><a name="Second_Amendment_theory" id="Second_Amendment_theory"></a></p> <h4> <span class="mw-headline">Second Amendment theory</span></h4> <p>In 1915, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maine_Supreme_Judicial_Court" title="Maine Supreme Judicial Court">Maine Supreme Judicial Court</a> Chief Justice Lucilius A. Emery wrote an article in the <i><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harvard_Law_Review" title="Harvard Law Review">Harvard Law Review</a></i> on the Right to Keep and Bear Arms,<sup id="cite_ref-Emery_66-1" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Second_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution#cite_note-Emery-66" title="">[67]</a></sup> and argued that "The guaranty does not appear to have been of a common-law right" [and] "I submit that the right guaranteed is not so much to the individual for his private quarrels or feuds as to the people collectively for the common defense against the common enemy, foreign or domestic."</p> <p>According to 1998 research and testimony<sup id="cite_ref-Volokh_62-1" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Second_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution#cite_note-Volokh-62" title="">[63]</a></sup> by <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eugene_Volokh" title="Eugene Volokh">Eugene Volokh</a>, a <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/UCLA" class="mw-redirect" title="UCLA">UCLA</a> law professor and a well known individual gun-rights proponent; the Supreme Court has ruled in passing in 22 out of 27 times while quoting or paraphrasing only "the right of the people to keep and bear arms" language of the Second Amendment without ever mentioning the militia clause, and this treatment has evidenced clear support of the Second Amendment as protecting an individual right and not as protecting a collective right.<sup id="cite_ref-olc2004_85-1" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Second_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution#cite_note-olc2004-85" title="">[86]</a></sup> However, Akhil Reed Amar, a leading scholar of constitutional law, writes in the left-leaning journal <i><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_New_Republic" title="The New Republic">The New Republic</a></i> that the word <i>people</i> is also used in a collective sense in the U.S. Constitution: "The amendment speaks of a right of 'the people' collectively rather than a right of 'persons' individually.' And it uses a distinctly military phrase: 'bear arms.'"<sup id="cite_ref-95" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Second_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution#cite_note-95" title="">[96]</a></sup></p> <p>According to Volokh, the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Court_of_Appeals" class="mw-redirect" title="United States Court of Appeals">federal courts of appeal</a> have often subscribed to the states' right approach, instead of to the individual right approach.<sup id="cite_ref-Volokh_62-2" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Second_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution#cite_note-Volokh-62" title="">[63]</a></sup> They also have not agreed upon any single interpretation of the Second Amendment. The Fifth and Ninth circuits have shown different judicial thinking, tending to favor the individual and collective rights models respectively. Most circuits have followed the Ninth's reading.<sup id="cite_ref-96" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Second_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution#cite_note-96" title="">[97]</a></sup> Despite these inconsistencies among the lower courts, the Supreme Court had not granted <i><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Certiorari" title="Certiorari">certiorari</a></i> to any recent case hinging on the Second Amendment prior to granting <i>certiorari</i> on <i>Parker v. District of Columbia</i> on <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/November_20" title="November 20">November 20</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2007" title="2007">2007</a>.</p> <p>The <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brady_Center" class="mw-redirect" title="Brady Center">Brady Center</a>, an advocate for gun control, has stated: "No federal court in history has overturned a gun law on Second Amendment grounds."<sup id="cite_ref-97" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Second_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution#cite_note-97" title="">[98]</a></sup> (This recently changed with the Parker v. District decision.<sup id="cite_ref-04-7041a_76-1" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Second_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution#cite_note-04-7041a-76" title="">[77]</a></sup>) Also, "… the meaning of the Second Amendment has been settled since the U.S. Supreme Court ruling in <i><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_v._Miller" title="United States v. Miller">United States v. Miller</a></i>, 307 U.S. 174 (1939). In that case, the Court ruled that the "obvious purpose" of the Second Amendment was to "assure the continuation and render possible the effectiveness" of the state militia." These statements, however, predate the above-referenced D.C. Circuit case which struck down the District of Columbia's handgun ban. While <i>United States v. Miller</i> was a Supreme Court case, <i>Parker v. District of Columbia</i> pertained only to the District of Columbia circuit, prior to the U.S. Supreme Court granting <i>certiorari</i> in the <i>Parker</i> case under the name <i>District of Columbia v. Heller</i>.</p> <p>Those on the individual rights side of the argument point out that while <i>United States v. Miller</i> upheld the NFA and the government's power to tax sawed-off shotguns, it had little bearing on whether the right to keep and bear arms was individual, collective, or both. Some even claim it offers substantial support for the individual rights model.<sup id="cite_ref-98" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Second_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution#cite_note-98" title="">[99]</a></sup> Because Miller was dead before his case was heard, no defense argument was made and his legal counsel failed to appear, <i>United States v. Miller</i> may not offer much to either side in the way of useful precedent.</p> <p>Since <i>Miller</i>, the Supreme Court has addressed the Second Amendment twice more, upholding <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_Jersey" title="New Jersey">New Jersey's</a> strict gun control law in 1969 and upholding the federal law banning felons from possessing guns in 1980. Furthermore, twice — in 1965 and 1990 — the Supreme Court has held that the term "well-regulated militia" refers to the National Guard.<sup id="cite_ref-99" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Second_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution#cite_note-99" title="">[100]</a></sup></p> <p>The 1969 case in question was <i>Burton v. Sills</i>, <span class="plainlinksneverexpand"><a href="http://caselaw.lp.findlaw.com/scripts/getcase.pl?navby=CASE&court=US&vol=394&page=812" class="external text" title="http://caselaw.lp.findlaw.com/scripts/getcase.pl?navby=CASE&court=US&vol=394&page=812" rel="nofollow">394 U.S. 812</a> (1969)</span>, Sills being the attorney general for New Jersey, and Burton being the individual charged with violating New Jersey's gun control law. The essential issue at question was whether New Jersey's strict gun control law violated Burton's Second Amendment right. The appeal by Burton was dismissed "for want of a substantial federal question" by the U.S. Supreme Court, thereby letting stand the lower court decisions and leaving in place New Jersey's strict gun control laws. The key factor was that Burton could apply for a New Jersey gun permit, and hence his Second Amendment right was not infringed, only regulated. The New Jersey Supreme Court affirmed with <i>Burton v. Sills</i>, 53 N.J. 86 (1968)<sup id="cite_ref-100" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Second_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution#cite_note-100" title="">[101]</a></sup> that:</p> <blockquote class="templatequote"> <div> <p>… Congress, though admittedly governed by the second amendment, may regulate interstate firearms so long as the regulation does not impair the maintenance of the active, organized militias of the states.</p> </div> </blockquote> <p>The 1965 decision relative to the definition of militia arises in <i>Maryland v. United States</i>, <span class="plainlinksneverexpand"><a href="http://caselaw.lp.findlaw.com/scripts/getcase.pl?navby=CASE&court=US&vol=381&page=41" class="external text" title="http://caselaw.lp.findlaw.com/scripts/getcase.pl?navby=CASE&court=US&vol=381&page=41" rel="nofollow">381 U.S. 41</a> (1965)</span>. In this case, an airliner collided with a National Guard jet, and a need for a definition of National Guard arose. In this ruling, the U.S. Supreme Court wrote,</p> <blockquote class="templatequote"> <div> <p>The National Guard is the modern Militia reserved to the States by Art. I. 8, cl. 15, 16, of the Constitution.</p> </div> </blockquote> <p>Clauses 15 and 16 of the Constitution are:</p> <ul><li>To provide for calling forth the militia to execute the laws of the union, suppress insurrections and repel invasions;</li><li>To provide for organizing, arming, and disciplining, the militia, and for governing such part of them as may be employed in the service of the United States, reserving to the States respectively, the appointment of the officers, and the authority of training the militia according to the discipline prescribed by Congress;</li></ul> <p>The National Guard is an example of the militia of Clauses 15 and 16. There remains an open question whether the modern National Guard was the <i>sole version</i> of the well-regulated militia described by the Second Amendment. <i>Maryland v. United States</i> does state that "The National Guard is the modern Militia". Pro-individual gun right advocates argue that an unorganized militia would be an equally "well-regulated militia". Pro-collective gun right advocates question this argument in light of the "…active, organized militias…" wording of <i>Burton v. Sills</i>.</p> <p>Further clarification was provided in 1990, in <i>Perpich v. Department of Defense</i>, <span class="plainlinksneverexpand"><a href="http://caselaw.lp.findlaw.com/scripts/getcase.pl?navby=CASE&court=US&vol=496&page=334" class="external text" title="http://caselaw.lp.findlaw.com/scripts/getcase.pl?navby=CASE&court=US&vol=496&page=334" rel="nofollow">496 U.S. 334</a> (1990)</span>. In this case, the Supreme Court ruled that, "The Dick Act divided the class of able-bodied male citizens between 18 and 45 years of age into an "organized militia" to be known as the National Guard of the several states, and the remainder of which was then described as the "reserve militia", and which later statutes have termed the "unorganized militia." … "In 1908, however, the statute was amended to provide expressly that the organized militia should be available for service 'either within or without the territory of the United States'."<sup id="cite_ref-101" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Second_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution#cite_note-101" title="">[102]</a></sup> Hence, the National Guard is not the same as the unorganized militia.</p> <p>The primary Supreme Court cases that address Second Amendment issues are <i><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/District_of_Columbia_v._Heller" title="District of Columbia v. Heller">District of Columbia v. Heller</a></i> (2008), <i>United States v. Miller</i> (1939), <i><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Presser_v._Illinois" title="Presser v. Illinois">Presser v. Illinois</a></i> (1886) and <i><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_v._Cruikshank" title="United States v. Cruikshank">United States v. Cruikshank</a></i> (1875). The rulings for these cases found that individual use of arms could be restricted.</p> <p><a name="Important_case_law" id="Important_case_law"></a></p> <h2><span class="mw-headline">Important case law</span></h2> <p><a name="District_of_Columbia_v._Heller" id="District_of_Columbia_v._Heller"></a></p> <h3><span class="mw-headline"><i>District of Columbia v. Heller</i></span></h3> <dl><dd> <div class="noprint relarticle mainarticle"><i>Main article: <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/District_of_Columbia_v._Heller" title="District of Columbia v. Heller">District of Columbia v. Heller</a></i></div> </dd></dl> <p>In <i>District of Columbia v. Heller</i>, <a href="http://caselaw.lp.findlaw.com/scripts/getcase.pl?court=US&navby=case&vol=000&invol=07-290#opinion1" class="external text" title="http://caselaw.lp.findlaw.com/scripts/getcase.pl?court=US&navby=case&vol=000&invol=07-290#opinion1" rel="nofollow">554 U.S. ___</a>, decided on <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/June_26" title="June 26">June 26</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2008" title="2008">2008</a>, the Supreme Court ruled that "The Second Amendment protects an individual right to possess a firearm unconnected with service in a militia, and to use that arm for traditionally lawful purposes, such as self-defense within the home," invalidating a District of Columbia gun control statute that had banned guns within Washington D.C.</p> <p><a name="United_States_v._Miller" id="United_States_v._Miller"></a></p> <h3><span class="editsection">[<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Second_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: United States v. Miller">edit</a>]</span> <span class="mw-headline"><i>United States v. Miller</i></span></h3> <dl><dd> <div class="noprint relarticle mainarticle"><i>Main article: <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_v._Miller" title="United States v. Miller">United States v. Miller</a></i></div> </dd></dl> <p>In <i>United States v. Miller</i>, the court rejected a Second Amendment challenge to a <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Firearms_Act" title="National Firearms Act">federal law</a> prohibiting the interstate transportation of unregistered Title II weapons, ruling that</p> <blockquote class="templatequote"> <div> <p>In the absence of any evidence tending to show that possession or use of a 'shotgun having a barrel of less than eighteen inches in length' at this time has some reasonable relationship to the preservation or efficiency of a well regulated militia, we cannot say that the Second Amendment guarantees the right to keep and bear such an instrument. Certainly it is not within judicial notice that this weapon is any part of the ordinary military equipment or that its use could contribute to the common defense.</p> </div> </blockquote> <p>This case is often cited by gun-rights advocates, because the Supreme Court ruled that the Second Amendment protected the right to keep arms that are part of "ordinary military equipment".</p> <p><a name="United_States_v._Cruikshank" id="United_States_v._Cruikshank"></a></p> <h3> <span class="mw-headline"><i>United States v. Cruikshank</i></span></h3> <dl><dd> <div class="noprint relarticle mainarticle"><i>Main article: <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_v._Cruikshank" title="United States v. Cruikshank">United States v. Cruikshank</a></i></div> </dd></dl> <p>With <i>Cruikshank</i>, the Supreme Court ruled that because <i>"[t]he Second Amendment…has no other effect than to restrict the powers of the national government…"</i>, the federal government may not punish individuals for depriving citizens of their right to bear arms. The courts did not recognize the doctrine of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Incorporation_%28Bill_of_Rights%29" title="Incorporation (Bill of Rights)">incorporation</a> at this point in the 19th century. Though many of the federal rights delineated in the federal Bill of Rights have subsequently been incorporated by the Court as states rights, the Court has not done so for the Second Amendment. Significantly with respect to the meaning of the amendment, the court found that the Second Amendment prohibited the national government from infringing on the right of individuals "to bear arms for a lawful purpose".<sup id="cite_ref-102" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Second_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution#cite_note-102" title="">[103]</a></sup></p> <p><a name="Presser_v._Illinois" id="Presser_v._Illinois"></a></p> <h3><span class="editsection">[<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Second_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: Presser v. Illinois">edit</a>]</span> <span class="mw-headline"><i>Presser v. Illinois</i></span></h3> <dl><dd> <div class="noprint relarticle mainarticle"><i>Main article: <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Presser_v._Illinois" title="Presser v. Illinois">Presser v. Illinois</a></i></div> </dd></dl> <p><i><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Presser_v._Illinois" title="Presser v. Illinois">Presser v. Illinois</a></i> <span class="plainlinksneverexpand"><a href="http://caselaw.lp.findlaw.com/scripts/getcase.pl?navby=CASE&court=US&vol=116&page=252" class="external text" title="http://caselaw.lp.findlaw.com/scripts/getcase.pl?navby=CASE&court=US&vol=116&page=252" rel="nofollow">116 U.S. 252</a> (1886)</span> is one of only two 19th century post-<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Civil_War" title="American Civil War">Civil War</a> U.S. Supreme Court cases to address the Second Amendment, the other one being <i><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_v._Cruikshank" title="United States v. Cruikshank">United States v. Cruikshank</a></i> <span class="plainlinksneverexpand"><a href="http://caselaw.lp.findlaw.com/scripts/getcase.pl?navby=CASE&court=US&vol=92&page=542" class="external text" title="http://caselaw.lp.findlaw.com/scripts/getcase.pl?navby=CASE&court=US&vol=92&page=542" rel="nofollow">92 U.S. 542</a> (1875)</span>.</p> <p><i>Presser</i> affirms the view articulated in <i>Cruikshank</i> that the amendment only restricts the power of the federal government; modern supporters of the individual rights view see the case as affirming a right to keep and bear arms as a necessary condition to have a universal militia; the conflict between these viewpoints was argued in court in 1982 in the case of <i>Quilici v. Village of Morton Grove</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-103" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Second_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution#cite_note-103" title="">[104]</a></sup></p> <p><a name="Other_cases_of_note" id="Other_cases_of_note"></a></p> <h3><span class="editsection"></span> <span class="mw-headline">Other cases of note</span></h3> <dl><dd><span class="boilerplate seealso"><i>See also: <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Firearm_court_cases" class="mw-redirect" title="Firearm court cases">Firearm court cases</a></i></span></dd></dl> <p>The case of <i>Perpich v. Department of Defense</i> (1990) concerned the training of the state militia, and a dispute between the state governor of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Minnesota" title="Minnesota">Minnesota</a> and the Department of Defense over whose authority was plenary in doing so. Article I, Section 8 of the Constitution reserves the training of the militia to the states according to the discipline prescribed by Congress, but also gives Congress the power to raise and support armies for a period not exceeding two years for a given appropriation. The National Guard was recognized as both the state militia under Article I, Section 8 of the Constitution (and the Second Amendment) as well as the reserve force of the Army at the same time. The dispute arose over whether the Guard's role as the militia excludes them from being a part of the Army as well, and gives the states the power to refuse to allow them to be called up into their role as the Army's reserve and trained outside of their home state, under the reservation of the militia's training to the states. The Court held that Article I, Section 8's additional grant of power to provide for the calling of the militia into the federal service may be combined with their power to raise and support armies all at once, and hence the National Guard has no immunity from being trained as part of the Army; the power to call up the militia is not excluded as being separate from the army powers, and is simply an additional grant of power. This case is significant for Second Amendment case law in that it recognizes that the National Guard is one modern form of the militia under federal law.</p> <p><a name="Colonial_right_to_possess_arms_under_English_Common_Law" id="Colonial_right_to_possess_arms_under_English_Common_Law"></a></p> <h2> <span class="mw-headline">Colonial right to possess arms under English Common Law</span></h2> <p>As British subjects, Protestant colonists had a conditional right to possess arms according to the <i><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bill_of_Rights_1689" title="Bill of Rights 1689">English Declaration of Rights</a></i> of 1689.</p> <ul><li>"That the subjects which are Protestants may have Arms for their Defence suitable to their Conditions, and as allowed by Law."<sup id="cite_ref-104" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Second_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution#cite_note-104" title="">[105]</a></sup></li></ul> <p>The rights of British subjects to possess arms was recognized under English <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Common_Law" class="mw-redirect" title="Common Law">Common Law</a>. Sir <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Blackstone" title="William Blackstone">William Blackstone's</a> <i>Commentaries on the Laws of England</i>, were highly influential and were used as a reference and text book for English Common Law. In his Commentaries, Blackstone described the right to arms.</p> <blockquote class="templatequote"> <div> <p>The fifth and last auxiliary right of the subject, that I shall at present mention, is that of having arms for their defence, suitable to their condition and degree, and such as are allowed by law. Which is also declared by the same statute I W. & M. st.2. c.2. and is indeed a public allowance, under due restrictions, of the natural right of resistance and self-preservation, when the sanctions of society and laws are found insufficient to restrain the violence of oppression.<sup id="cite_ref-105" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Second_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution#cite_note-105" title="">[106]</a></sup></p> </div> </blockquote> <p>The rights of the Colonists to possess arms was stated in Revolutionary era newspaper articles. Notably a <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boston" class="mw-redirect" title="Boston">Boston</a> <i>Journal of the Times</i> printed in <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/April_13" title="April 13">April 13</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1769" title="1769">1769</a>.</p> <blockquote class="templatequote"> <div> <p>Instances of the licentious and outrageous behavior of the military conservators of the peace still multiply upon us, some of which are of such nature, and have been carried to such lengths, as must serve fully to evince that a late vote of this town, calling upon its inhabitants to provide themselves with arms for their defense, was a measure as prudent as it was legal: such violences are always to be apprehended from military troops, when quartered in the body of a populous city; but more especially so, when they are led to believe that they are become necessary to awe a spirit of rebellion, injuriously said to be existing therein. It is a natural right which the people have reserved to themselves, confirmed by the Bill of Rights, to keep arms for their own defence; and as Mr. Blackstone observes, it is to be made use of when the sanctions of society and law are found insufficient to restrain the violence of oppression.<sup id="cite_ref-106" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Second_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution#cite_note-106" title="">[107]</a></sup></p> </div> </blockquote> <p>John Adams, lead defense attorney for the British soldiers on trial for the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boston_Massacre" title="Boston Massacre">Boston Massacre</a> stated at the trial:</p> <blockquote class="templatequote"> <div> <p>Here every private person is authorized to arm himself, and on the strength of this authority, I do not deny the inhabitants had a right to arm themselves at that time, for their defense, not for offence…<sup id="cite_ref-107" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Second_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution#cite_note-107" title="">[108]</a></sup></p> </div> </blockquote> <p>According to the Militia Act of 1792, the President as commander in chief has a right and a need to know who the militiamen are and what the militia resources are as a national resource. In the eighteenth century, the public had a claim on privately owned weapons for public purposes.<sup id="cite_ref-108" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Second_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution#cite_note-108" title="">[109]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-109" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Second_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution#cite_note-109" title="">[110]</a></sup> This has relevance to the modern question sometimes raised, whether the Second Amendment prohibits gun registration or confiscation of private guns by the federal government. The Militia Act of 1792 required, with some exceptions, every free able-bodied white male citizen from 18 through 44 years old to enroll in the militia and provide himself with a good musket (the type of weapon in common use by the army) or firelock or a good rifle. It also required the aforesaid to hold their weapons exempted from all suits, distresses, executions, or sales for debt, or for the payment of taxes. Section 6 of the Militia Act requires the adjutant general of each state to annually report their condition to the commander in chief of the state and send a duplicate report to the President of the United States.<sup id="cite_ref-110" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Second_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution#cite_note-110" title="">[111]</a></sup></p> <p><a name="State_ratification_conventions" id="State_ratification_conventions"></a></p> <h2><span class="mw-headline">State ratification conventions</span></h2> <p>The Pennsylvania ratification convention was the second State Convention to ratify the U.S. Constitution and the first at which there was significant antifederalist opposition. One of the main opposition points of contention was the Constitution's omission of a Bill of Rights. The majority of the Convention would not allow proposed amendments or a Bill of Rights to be appended to Pennsylvania's <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/December_12" title="December 12">December 12</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1787" title="1787">1787</a> Ratification of the Constitution. On <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/December_18" title="December 18">December 18</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1787" title="1787">1787</a> the Pennsylvania Minority Published "The Address and Reasons of Dissent of the Minority of the Convention of Pennsylvania to their Constituents". The Right to Bears arms was the seventh in their proposed bill of rights.</p> <p>"7. That the people have a right to bear arms for the defense of themselves and their own State, or the United States, or for the purpose of killing game; and no law shall be passed for disarming the people or any of them, unless for crimes committed, or real danger of public injury from individuals;"<sup id="cite_ref-111" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Second_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution#cite_note-111" title="">[112]</a></sup></p> <p>Many delegates to subsequent State Ratification conventions were familiar with "The Address and Reasons of the Pennsylvania Minority, The Letters from the Federal Farmer to the Republican 18, and other antifederalist writings supporting a right to bear arms.</p> <p>Five of the state ratification conventions for the U.S. Constitution made explicit requests or demands for the protection of rights to keep and bear arms. Four states also clearly defined what a well-regulated militia consists of "the body of the people trained <i>to arms</i>" or "the body of the people capable of <i>bearing arms</i>". Four states attached proposed bills of rights to their approvals of the Constitution, the fifth, North Carolina, refused to approve the Constitution and submitted a bill of unalienable rights of the people that must be protected before they would sign.<sup id="cite_ref-112" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Second_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution#cite_note-112" title="">[113]</a></sup></p> <dl><dd><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_Hampshire" title="New Hampshire">New Hampshire</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/June_21" title="June 21">June 21</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1788" title="1788">1788</a></dd></dl> <ul><li>"XII. Congress shall never disarm any citizen, unless such as are or have been in actual rebellion."</li></ul> <dl><dd><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Virginia" title="Virginia">Virginia</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/June_27" title="June 27">June 27</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1788" title="1788">1788</a></dd></dl> <ul><li>"17th. That the people have a right to keep and bear arms; that a well-regulated militia, composed of the body of the people trained to arms, is the proper, natural, and safe defense of a free state:"</li></ul> <p>The Virginia Ratification Convention Committee that produced Virginia's proposed bill of rights included <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Madison" title="James Madison">James Madison</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Patrick_Henry" title="Patrick Henry">Patrick Henry</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_Mason" title="George Mason">George Mason</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Monroe" title="James Monroe">James Monroe</a> and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Marshall" title="John Marshall">John Marshall</a>.</p> <dl><dd><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_York" title="New York">New York</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/July_26" title="July 26">July 26</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1788" title="1788">1788</a></dd></dl> <ul><li>"That the people have a right to keep and bear arms; that a well-regulated militia, including the body of the people capable of bearing arms, is the proper, natural, and safe defence of a free state."</li></ul> <dl><dd><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/North_Carolina" title="North Carolina">North Carolina</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/August_1" title="August 1">August 1</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1788" title="1788">1788</a></dd></dl> <ul><li>"17. That the people have a right to keep and bear arms; that a well regulated militia, composed of the body of the people, trained to arms, is the proper, natural, and safe defence of a free state;"</li></ul> <p>North Carolina ratified the constitution on <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/November_21" title="November 21">November 21</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1789" title="1789">1789</a>, after Congress approved the Bill of Rights and submitted them to the states for ratification.</p> <dl><dd><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rhode_Island" title="Rhode Island">Rhode Island</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/May_29" title="May 29">May 29</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1790" title="1790">1790</a></dd></dl> <ul><li>"XVII. That the people have a right to keep and bear arms; that a well-regulated militia, including the body of the people capable of bearing arms, is the proper, natural, and safe defence of a free state;"</li></ul>Administratorhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/08457535216173436628noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-5064508587627806524.post-11106556982351621952008-06-27T16:11:00.000-04:002008-06-27T16:13:11.807-04:00Heath Ledger<p><b><a href="http://news.yahoo.com/s/ap/20080627/ap_en_ot/film_dark_knight_first_look;_ylt=Auzm1THzhT7zVvKfbJHlocQDW7oF">Ledger in the News...</a><br /></b></p><p><b>Heath Andrew Ledger</b> (<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/April_4" title="April 4">April 4</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1979" title="1979">1979</a> – <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/January_22" title="January 22">January 22</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2008" title="2008">2008</a>) was an <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Academy_Award" title="Academy Award">Academy Award</a>-, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/British_Academy_of_Film_and_Television_Arts" title="British Academy of Film and Television Arts">BAFTA</a>-, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Golden_Globe" class="mw-redirect" title="Golden Globe">Golden Globe</a>-, and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SAG_Award" class="mw-redirect" title="SAG Award">SAG Award</a>-nominated <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Australian" class="mw-redirect" title="Australian">Australian</a> film and television <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Actor" title="Actor">actor</a>. After appearing in television roles during the 1990s, Ledger developed a movie career, appearing in nearly 20 films. He starred in both <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Film_criticism" title="Film criticism">critical</a> and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Box-office" class="mw-redirect" title="Box-office">box-office</a> successes, including <i><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/10_Things_I_Hate_About_You" title="10 Things I Hate About You">10 Things I Hate About You</a></i>, <i><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Patriot_%282000_film%29" title="The Patriot (2000 film)">The Patriot</a></i>, <i><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monster%27s_Ball" title="Monster's Ball">Monster's Ball</a>,</i> <i><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A_Knight%27s_Tale" title="A Knight's Tale">A Knight's Tale</a></i>, and <i><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brokeback_Mountain_%28film%29" class="mw-redirect" title="Brokeback Mountain (film)">Brokeback Mountain</a></i>.<sup id="cite_ref-NYTBarron_0-0" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heath_ledger#cite_note-NYTBarron-0" title="">[1]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Timesobit_1-0" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heath_ledger#cite_note-Timesobit-1" title="">[2]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-GMAtimeline_2-0" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heath_ledger#cite_note-GMAtimeline-2" title="">[3]</a></sup> For his portrayal of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ennis_Del_Mar" title="Ennis Del Mar">Ennis Del Mar</a> in <i>Brokeback Mountain</i>, Ledger was nominated for a 2005 <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Academy_Award" title="Academy Award">Oscar</a> for "Best Actor in a Leading Role"<sup id="cite_ref-NYTBarron_0-1" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heath_ledger#cite_note-NYTBarron-0" title="">[1]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Timesobit_1-1" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heath_ledger#cite_note-Timesobit-1" title="">[2]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-GMAtimeline_2-1" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heath_ledger#cite_note-GMAtimeline-2" title="">[3]</a></sup> and also was nominated and won "Best Actor" awards for that role from <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/59th_British_Academy_Film_Awards" title="59th British Academy Film Awards">BAFTA</a> and the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Australian_Film_Institute" title="Australian Film Institute">Australian Film Institute</a> and the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_York_Film_Critics_Circle_Award" class="mw-redirect" title="New York Film Critics Circle Award">New York Film Critics Circle</a>, respectively, as well as won an <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MTV_Movie_Awards" title="MTV Movie Awards">MTV Movie Award</a> with <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jake_Gyllenhaal" title="Jake Gyllenhaal">Jake Gyllenhaal</a> for their "best kiss" in the film.<sup id="cite_ref-IMDbAwards_3-0" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heath_ledger#cite_note-IMDbAwards-3" title="">[4]</a></sup></p> <p>He completed filming his role as the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joker_%28comics%29" title="Joker (comics)">Joker</a> in the forthcoming movie <i><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Dark_Knight_%28film%29" title="The Dark Knight (film)">The Dark Knight</a></i>,<sup id="cite_ref-Halbfinger2_4-0" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heath_ledger#cite_note-Halbfinger2-4" title="">[5]</a></sup> shortly before dying, on <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/January_22" title="January 22">January 22</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2008" title="2008">2008</a>, from an accidental prescription drug overdose at age 28.<sup id="cite_ref-NYTBarron_0-2" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heath_ledger#cite_note-NYTBarron-0" title="">[1]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Timesobit_1-2" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heath_ledger#cite_note-Timesobit-1" title="">[2]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Chan_5-0" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heath_ledger#cite_note-Chan-5" title="">[6]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-CNNLedger_6-0" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heath_ledger#cite_note-CNNLedger-6" title="">[7]</a></sup> His final film performance, uncompleted at the time of his death, is the role of Tony in <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Terry_Gilliam" title="Terry Gilliam">Terry Gilliam's</a> forthcoming film <i><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Imaginarium_of_Doctor_Parnassus" title="The Imaginarium of Doctor Parnassus">The Imaginarium of Doctor Parnassus</a></i>.<sup id="cite_ref-CNNBind_7-0" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heath_ledger#cite_note-CNNBind-7" title="">[8]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Kilpatrick_8-0" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heath_ledger#cite_note-Kilpatrick-8" title="">[9]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Halbfinger_9-0" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heath_ledger#cite_note-Halbfinger-9" title="">[10]</a></sup> Posthumously, on <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/February_23" title="February 23">February 23</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2008" title="2008">2008</a>, he shared the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Independent_Spirit_Awards" class="mw-redirect" title="Independent Spirit Awards">Independent Spirit</a> <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Robert_Altman_Award&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Robert Altman Award (page does not exist)">Robert Altman Award</a> with the cast and crew of the film <i><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/I%27m_Not_There" title="I'm Not There">I'm Not There</a></i>, in which he portrayed a character named "Robbie Clark", based on a stage in the life of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bob_Dylan" title="Bob Dylan">Bob Dylan</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-IMDbAwards_3-1" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heath_ledger#cite_note-IMDbAwards-3" title="">[4]</a></sup></p> <p>In addition to his work as an actor and as a producer and director of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Music_video" title="Music video">music videos</a>, he also aspired to be a <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Film_director" title="Film director">film director</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Dawtrey_10-0" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heath_ledger#cite_note-Dawtrey-10" title="">[11]</a></sup></p><h2><span class="mw-headline">Family and personal life</span></h2> <p>Heath Ledger was born on <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/April_4" title="April 4">April 4</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1979" title="1979">1979</a>, in <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Perth%2C_Western_Australia" title="Perth, Western Australia">Perth, Western Australia</a>, the son of Sally Ledger Bell (<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Married_and_maiden_names" title="Married and maiden names">née</a> Ramshaw), a <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/French_language" title="French language">French</a> teacher, and Kim Ledger, a <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Race_car" class="mw-redirect" title="Race car">race car</a> driver and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mining" title="Mining">mining</a> engineer, whose family established and owned the well-known Ledger Engineering Foundry.<sup id="cite_ref-Wills_11-0" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heath_ledger#cite_note-Wills-11" title="">[12]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-filmref_12-0" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heath_ledger#cite_note-filmref-12" title="">[13]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heath_ledger#cite_note-13" title="">[14]</a></sup> The Sir Frank Ledger Charitable Trust is named after his great-grandfather.<sup id="cite_ref-Wills_11-1" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heath_ledger#cite_note-Wills-11" title="">[12]</a></sup> Ledger attended Mary's Mount Primary School, in <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gooseberry_Hill%2C_Western_Australia" title="Gooseberry Hill, Western Australia">Gooseberry Hill</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-Ripper_14-0" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heath_ledger#cite_note-Ripper-14" title="">[15]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heath_ledger#cite_note-15" title="">[16]</a></sup> and later <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guildford_Grammar_School" title="Guildford Grammar School">Guildford Grammar School</a>, where he had his first acting experiences, starring in a school production as <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peter_Pan" title="Peter Pan">Peter Pan</a> at age 10.<sup id="cite_ref-Wills_11-2" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heath_ledger#cite_note-Wills-11" title="">[12]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Timesobit_1-3" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heath_ledger#cite_note-Timesobit-1" title="">[2]</a></sup> His parents separated when he was 10 and divorced when he was 11.<sup id="cite_ref-Lipsky_16-0" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heath_ledger#cite_note-Lipsky-16" title="">[17]</a></sup> Ledger's older sister, Kate, an actress and later a <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Publicist" title="Publicist">publicist</a>, with whom he was very close, inspired his acting on stage, and his love of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gene_Kelly" title="Gene Kelly">Gene Kelly</a> inspired his successful <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Choreography" title="Choreography">choreography</a> leading to Guildford Grammar's 60-member team's "first all-boy victory" at the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rock_Eisteddfod_Challenge" title="Rock Eisteddfod Challenge">Rock Eisteddfod Challenge</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Wills_11-3" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heath_ledger#cite_note-Wills-11" title="">[12]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Sessums3_17-0" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heath_ledger#cite_note-Sessums3-17" title="">[18]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Sessums3_17-1" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heath_ledger#cite_note-Sessums3-17" title="">[18]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Wills_11-4" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heath_ledger#cite_note-Wills-11" title="">[12]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Kent_18-0" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heath_ledger#cite_note-Kent-18" title="">[19]</a></sup> Heath's and Kate's other siblings include two half-sisters, Ashleigh Bell (b. 1989), his mother's daughter with her second husband and his stepfather Roger Bell, and Olivia Ledger (b. 1997), his father's daughter with second wife and his stepmother Emma Brown.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heath_ledger#cite_note-19" title="">[20]</a></sup></p> <p>Ledger was an avid <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chess" title="Chess">chess</a> player, winning Western Australia's junior chess championship at the age of 10.<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heath_ledger#cite_note-20" title="">[21]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-chess2_21-0" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heath_ledger#cite_note-chess2-21" title="">[22]</a></sup> As an adult, he often played with other chess enthusiasts at <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Washington_Square_Park" class="mw-redirect" title="Washington Square Park">Washington Square Park</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heath_ledger#cite_note-22" title="">[23]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heath_ledger#cite_note-23" title="">[24]</a></sup> <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Allan_Scott_%28Scottish_screenwriter%29" title="Allan Scott (Scottish screenwriter)">Allan Scott's</a> film adaptation of the chess-related 1983 novel <i>The <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Queen%27s_Gambit" title="Queen's Gambit">Queen's Gambit</a></i>, by <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Walter_Tevis" title="Walter Tevis">Walter Tevis</a>, which at the time of his death he was planning both to perform in and to direct, would have been Ledger's first <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Feature_film" title="Feature film">feature film</a> as a director.<sup id="cite_ref-Dawtrey_10-1" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heath_ledger#cite_note-Dawtrey-10" title="">[11]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Cazzulino2_24-0" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heath_ledger#cite_note-Cazzulino2-24" title="">[25]</a></sup></p> <dl><dd><i>Further information: <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heath_ledger#Directorial_work" title="">#Directorial work</a></i></dd></dl> <p>Among his most-notable romantic relationships, Ledger dated actress <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heather_Graham_%28actress%29" class="mw-redirect" title="Heather Graham (actress)">Heather Graham</a>, from <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/October" title="October">October</a> <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2000" title="2000">2000</a> to <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/June" title="June">June</a> <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2001" title="2001">2001</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-IMDb_25-0" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heath_ledger#cite_note-IMDb-25" title="">[26]</a></sup> He had a serious longterm relationship with actress <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Naomi_Watts" title="Naomi Watts">Naomi Watts</a>, whom he met during the filming of <i><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ned_Kelly_%282003_film%29" title="Ned Kelly (2003 film)">Ned Kelly</a></i>.<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heath_ledger#cite_note-26" title="">[27]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-McShaneexcerpt_27-0" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heath_ledger#cite_note-McShaneexcerpt-27" title="">[28]</a></sup> He met and began dating actress <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michelle_Williams_%28actress%29" title="Michelle Williams (actress)">Michelle Williams</a> on the set of <i>Brokeback Mountain</i>, and their daughter, Matilda Rose, was born on <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/October_28" title="October 28">October 28</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2005" title="2005">2005</a> in <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_York_City" title="New York City">New York City</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heath_ledger#cite_note-28" title="">[29]</a></sup> Matilda Rose's godparents are Ledger's <i>Brokeback</i> co-star <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jake_Gyllenhaal" title="Jake Gyllenhaal">Jake Gyllenhaal</a> and Williams' <i><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dawson%27s_Creek" title="Dawson's Creek">Dawson's Creek</a></i> castmate <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Busy_Philipps" title="Busy Philipps">Busy Philipps</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heath_ledger#cite_note-29" title="">[30]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heath_ledger#cite_note-30" title="">[31]</a></sup> Problems with <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paparazzi" title="Paparazzi">paparazzi</a> in Australia prompted Ledger to sell his residence in <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bronte%2C_New_South_Wales" title="Bronte, New South Wales">Bronte, New South Wales</a> and move to the United States, where he shared an apartment with Williams, in <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boerum_Hill" title="Boerum Hill">Boerum Hill</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brooklyn" title="Brooklyn">Brooklyn</a>, from 2005 to 2007.<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heath_ledger#cite_note-31" title="">[32]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-NYTBarron_0-3" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heath_ledger#cite_note-NYTBarron-0" title="">[1]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heath_ledger#cite_note-32" title="">[33]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heath_ledger#cite_note-33" title="">[34]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-AWilliams_34-0" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heath_ledger#cite_note-AWilliams-34" title="">[35]</a></sup> In <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/September_2007" title="September 2007">September 2007</a>, Williams' father, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Larry_Williams_%28trader%29" title="Larry Williams (trader)">Larry Williams</a>, confirmed to Sydney's <i><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Daily_Telegraph_%28Australia%29" title="The Daily Telegraph (Australia)">Daily Telegraph</a></i> that Ledger and Williams had ended their relationship.<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heath_ledger#cite_note-35" title="">[36]</a></sup> After his break up with Williams, in late 2007 and early 2008, the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tabloid_press" class="mw-redirect" title="Tabloid press">tabloid press</a> and other <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mass_media" title="Mass media">public media</a> linked Ledger romantically with <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supermodel" title="Supermodel">supermodels</a> <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Helena_Christensen" title="Helena Christensen">Helena Christensen</a> and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gemma_Ward" title="Gemma Ward">Gemma Ward</a> and with former <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Child_actor" title="Child actor">child star</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Actor" title="Actor">actress</a> <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mary-Kate_Olsen" title="Mary-Kate Olsen">Mary-Kate Olsen</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Supermodel_36-0" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heath_ledger#cite_note-Supermodel-36" title="">[37]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Stansfield_37-0" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heath_ledger#cite_note-Stansfield-37" title="">[38]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-SidConf_38-0" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heath_ledger#cite_note-SidConf-38" title="">[39]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FifeYeomans_39-0" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heath_ledger#cite_note-FifeYeomans-39" title="">[40]</a></sup></p> <p><a name="Career" id="Career"></a></p> <h2><span class="mw-headline">Career</span></h2> <p><a name="1990s"></a></p> <h3><span class="mw-headline">1990s</span></h3> <p>At 16, Ledger sat for early graduation exams and left school to pursue an acting career.<sup id="cite_ref-Lipsky_16-1" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heath_ledger#cite_note-Lipsky-16" title="">[17]</a></sup> With his best friend, Trevor DiCarlo, Ledger made the cross-country drive to <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sydney" title="Sydney">Sydney</a>. He returned to <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Perth%2C_Western_Australia" title="Perth, Western Australia">Perth</a> for the TV series <i><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sweat_%28TV_series%29" title="Sweat (TV series)">Sweat</a></i> (1996), in which he played a <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gay" title="Gay">gay</a> cyclist.<sup id="cite_ref-Wills_11-5" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heath_ledger#cite_note-Wills-11" title="">[12]</a></sup></p> <p>In 1996, prior to his film debut in the 1997 Australian movie <i><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blackrock_%28film%29" title="Blackrock (film)">Blackrock</a></i>, Ledger was involved in the short-lived <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fox_Broadcasting_Company" title="Fox Broadcasting Company">Fox Broadcasting Company</a> fantasy-drama <i><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roar_%28television_series%29" class="mw-redirect" title="Roar (television series)">Roar</a></i>. This was immediately followed by a part on <i><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Home_and_Away" title="Home and Away">Home and Away</a></i>, one of Australia's most successful television shows. In 1999, Ledger starred in the teen comedy <i><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/10_Things_I_Hate_About_You" title="10 Things I Hate About You">10 Things I Hate About You</a></i> and also had the lead role in the acclaimed Australian movie <i><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Two_Hands_%281999_film%29" title="Two Hands (1999 film)">Two Hands</a></i>, directed by <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gregor_Jordan" title="Gregor Jordan">Gregor Jordan</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Wills_11-6" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heath_ledger#cite_note-Wills-11" title="">[12]</a></sup></p> <p><a name="2000s"></a></p> <h3><span class="mw-headline">2000s</span></h3> <p>From 2000 to 2005, he starred in <i><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Patriot_%282000_film%29" title="The Patriot (2000 film)">The Patriot</a></i>, <i><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monster%27s_Ball" title="Monster's Ball">Monster's Ball</a></i>, <i><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A_Knight%27s_Tale_%28film%29" class="mw-redirect" title="A Knight's Tale (film)">A Knight's Tale</a></i>, <i><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Four_Feathers_%282002_film%29" title="The Four Feathers (2002 film)">The Four Feathers</a></i>, <i><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ned_Kelly_%282003_film%29" title="Ned Kelly (2003 film)">Ned Kelly</a></i>, <i><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Order_%282003_film%29" title="The Order (2003 film)">The Order</a></i>, and <i><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Brothers_Grimm_%28film%29" title="The Brothers Grimm (film)">The Brothers Grimm</a></i>. In 2001, he won a <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Association_of_Theatre_Owners" title="National Association of Theatre Owners">ShoWest Award</a> for the Male Star of Tomorrow based on his performance in <i>The Patriot</i>, and worldwide release of <i>A Knight's Tale</i>.</p> <p>Ledger received "Best Actor of 2005" awards from both the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_York_Film_Critics_Circle" class="mw-redirect" title="New York Film Critics Circle">New York Film Critics Circle</a> and the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/San_Francisco_Film_Critics_Circle" title="San Francisco Film Critics Circle">San Francisco Film Critics Circle</a> for his performance in <i><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brokeback_Mountain" title="Brokeback Mountain">Brokeback Mountain</a></i>, in which he plays <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wyoming" title="Wyoming">Wyoming</a> ranch hand <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ennis_Del_Mar" title="Ennis Del Mar">Ennis Del Mar</a>, who has a love affair with aspiring <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rodeo" title="Rodeo">rodeo</a> rider <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jack_Twist" title="Jack Twist">Jack Twist</a>, played by <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jake_Gyllenhaal" title="Jake Gyllenhaal">Jake Gyllenhaal</a>. He also received a nomination for <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Golden_Globe" class="mw-redirect" title="Golden Globe">Golden Globe</a> Best Actor in a Drama and a nomination for <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Academy_Award_for_Best_Actor" title="Academy Award for Best Actor">Academy Award for Best Actor</a> for this performance. At age 26, Ledger became one of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_oldest_and_youngest_Academy_Award_winners_and_nominees#Youngest_nominees_2" title="List of oldest and youngest Academy Award winners and nominees">the youngest performers ever nominated for the Best Actor Oscar</a>. In <i><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_New_York_Times" title="The New York Times">The New York Times</a></i> review of the film, critic Stephen Holden writes: "Both Mr. Ledger and Mr. Gyllenhaal make this anguished love story physically palpable. Mr. Ledger magically and mysteriously disappears beneath the skin of his lean, sinewy character. It is a great screen performance, as good as the best of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marlon_Brando" title="Marlon Brando">Marlon Brando</a> and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sean_Penn" title="Sean Penn">Sean Penn</a>."<sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heath_ledger#cite_note-40" title="">[41]</a></sup> In a review in <i><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rolling_Stone" title="Rolling Stone">Rolling Stone</a></i>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peter_Travers" title="Peter Travers">Peter Travers</a> states: "Ledger's magnificent performance is an acting miracle. He seems to tear it from his insides. Ledger doesn't just know how Ennis moves, speaks and listens; he knows how he breathes. To see him inhale the scent of a shirt hanging in Jack's closet is to take measure of the pain of love lost."<sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heath_ledger#cite_note-41" title="">[42]</a></sup></p> <p>Also in 2005, Ledger portrayed a fictionalised version of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Giacomo_Casanova" title="Giacomo Casanova">Giacomo Casanova</a> in <i><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Casanova_%28film%29" title="Casanova (film)">Casanova</a></i>, a <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romantic_comedy" title="Romantic comedy">romantic comedy</a> which co-starred <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sienna_Miller" title="Sienna Miller">Sienna Miller</a>.</p> <div class="thumb tright"> <div class="thumbinner" style="width: 142px;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:HeathJoker.png" class="image" title="Ledger as the Joker in The Dark Knight"><img alt="Ledger as the Joker in The Dark Knight" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/90/HeathJoker.png/140px-HeathJoker.png" class="thumbimage" width="140" border="0" height="148" /></a> <div class="thumbcaption"> <div class="magnify"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:HeathJoker.png" class="internal" title="Enlarge"><img src="http://en.wikipedia.org/skins-1.5/common/images/magnify-clip.png" alt="" width="15" height="11" /></a></div> Ledger as the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joker_%28comics%29" title="Joker (comics)">Joker</a> in <i><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Dark_Knight_%28film%29" title="The Dark Knight (film)">The Dark Knight</a></i></div> </div> </div> <p>In 2006, Ledger was invited to join the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Academy_of_Motion_Picture_Arts_and_Sciences" title="Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences">Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heath_ledger#cite_note-42" title="">[43]</a></sup></p> <p>In 2007, he was one of six actors to portray different stages in the life of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bob_Dylan" title="Bob Dylan">Bob Dylan</a> in the film <i><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/I%27m_Not_There" title="I'm Not There">I'm Not There</a></i>. Before <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brad_Pitt" title="Brad Pitt">Brad Pitt</a> accepted the lead after Ledger reportedly withdrew from the project, in December 2007, Ledger was to star, opposite <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sean_Penn" title="Sean Penn">Sean Penn</a> in a supporting role, in <i><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tree_of_Life_%28film%29" title="Tree of Life (film)">Tree of Life</a></i>, directed by <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Terrence_Malick" title="Terrence Malick">Terrence Malick</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-PN2007_43-0" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heath_ledger#cite_note-PN2007-43" title="">[44]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Fleming_44-0" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heath_ledger#cite_note-Fleming-44" title="">[45]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-CorcoranBroyles_45-0" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heath_ledger#cite_note-CorcoranBroyles-45" title="">[46]</a></sup></p> <p>Ledger plays <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joker_%28comics%29" title="Joker (comics)">the Joker</a> in <i><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Dark_Knight_%28film%29" title="The Dark Knight (film)">The Dark Knight</a></i>, directed by <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christopher_Nolan" title="Christopher Nolan">Christopher Nolan</a>, the sequel to the 2005 film <i><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Batman_Begins" title="Batman Begins">Batman Begins</a></i>, which is to be released on <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/July_18" title="July 18">July 18</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2008" title="2008">2008</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-DKBOM_46-0" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heath_ledger#cite_note-DKBOM-46" title="">[47]</a></sup> <i>The Dark Knight</i> was in post-production at the time of Ledger's death.<sup id="cite_ref-Brady_47-0" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heath_ledger#cite_note-Brady-47" title="">[48]</a></sup> Nolan has praised Ledger's performance as "<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Icon" title="Icon">iconic</a>".<sup id="cite_ref-Halbfinger2_4-1" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heath_ledger#cite_note-Halbfinger2-4" title="">[5]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Carroll_48-0" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heath_ledger#cite_note-Carroll-48" title="">[49]</a></sup></p> <p><i><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Imaginarium_of_Doctor_Parnassus" title="The Imaginarium of Doctor Parnassus">The Imaginarium of Doctor Parnassus</a></i>, in which Ledger had been cast in a major supporting role, was still in production at the time of his death.<sup id="cite_ref-49" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heath_ledger#cite_note-49" title="">[50]</a></sup></p> <p><a name="Directorial_work" id="Directorial_work"></a></p> <h3><span class="mw-headline">Directorial work</span></h3> <p>Ledger had aspirations to become a film director and made some <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Music_video" title="Music video">music videos</a>. In 2006 he debuted as a director with the music videos for the title track on Australian <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hip-hop" class="mw-redirect" title="Hip-hop">hip-hop</a> artist <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1200_Techniques" title="1200 Techniques">N'fa's</a> <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Compact_Disc" title="Compact Disc">CD</a> debut solo album <i>Cause an Effect</i><sup id="cite_ref-musicrev_50-0" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heath_ledger#cite_note-musicrev-50" title="">[51]</a></sup> and for the single "Seduction Is Evil (She's Hot)".<sup id="cite_ref-Inertiacat_51-0" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heath_ledger#cite_note-Inertiacat-51" title="">[52]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Drever_52-0" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heath_ledger#cite_note-Drever-52" title="">[53]</a></sup></p> <p>Later in 2006, Ledger started a new record label, Masses Music, with singer <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benjamin_Chase_Harper" class="mw-redirect" title="Benjamin Chase Harper">Ben Harper</a> and also directed a music video for Harper's song "Morning Yearning".<sup id="cite_ref-Lyall_53-0" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heath_ledger#cite_note-Lyall-53" title="">[54]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Starpulse_54-0" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heath_ledger#cite_note-Starpulse-54" title="">[55]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-IMDbTrivia_55-0" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heath_ledger#cite_note-IMDbTrivia-55" title="">[56]</a></sup></p> <p>At a news conference at the 2007 <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Venice_Film_Festival" title="Venice Film Festival">Venice Film Festival</a>, Ledger spoke of his desire to make a documentary film about the British <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Singer-songwriter" title="Singer-songwriter">singer-songwriter</a> <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nick_Drake" title="Nick Drake">Nick Drake</a>, who died in 1974, at the age of 26, from an overdose of an <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tricyclic_antidepressant" title="Tricyclic antidepressant">antidepressant</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FraenkelPerez_56-0" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heath_ledger#cite_note-FraenkelPerez-56" title="">[57]</a></sup> Ledger created and acted in a music video set to Drake's recording of the singer's 1974 song about depression "Black Eyed Dog"–a title "inspired by <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Winston_Churchill" title="Winston Churchill">Winston Churchill</a>’s descriptive term for depression" (<i>black dog</i>)<sup id="cite_ref-Storr_57-0" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heath_ledger#cite_note-Storr-57" title="">[58]</a></sup>; it was shown publicly only twice, first at the Bumbershoot Festival, in <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seattle%2C_Washington" title="Seattle, Washington">Seattle, Washington</a>, held from <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/September_1" title="September 1">September 1</a> to <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/September_3" title="September 3">September 3</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2007" title="2007">2007</a>; and secondly as part of "A Place To Be: A Celebration of Nick Drake", with its screening of <i>Their Place: Reflections On Nick Drake</i>, "a series of short filmed homages to Nick Drake" (including Ledger's), sponsored by <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Cinematheque" title="American Cinematheque">American Cinematheque</a>, at the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grauman%27s_Egyptian_Theatre" title="Grauman's Egyptian Theatre">Grauman's Egyptian Theatre</a>, in <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hollywood" class="mw-redirect" title="Hollywood">Hollywood</a>, on <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/October_5" title="October 5">October 5</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2007" title="2007">2007</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-AC_58-0" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heath_ledger#cite_note-AC-58" title="">[59]</a></sup> After Ledger's death, his music video for "Black Eyed Dog" was shown on the internet and excerpted in news clips distributed via <i><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/YouTube" title="YouTube">YouTube</a></i>.<sup id="cite_ref-FraenkelPerez_56-1" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heath_ledger#cite_note-FraenkelPerez-56" title="">[57]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Kreps_59-0" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heath_ledger#cite_note-Kreps-59" title="">[60]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Place_60-0" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heath_ledger#cite_note-Place-60" title="">[61]</a></sup></p> <p>He was also working with <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scotland" title="Scotland">Scottish</a> screenwriter and producer <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Allan_Scott_%28Scottish_screenwriter%29" title="Allan Scott (Scottish screenwriter)">Allan Scott</a> on an adaptation of the 1983 novel <i>The <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Queen%27s_Gambit" title="Queen's Gambit">Queen's Gambit</a></i>, by <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Walter_Tevis" title="Walter Tevis">Walter Tevis</a>; he was planning both to act in and to direct it, and it would have been his first <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Feature_film" title="Feature film">feature film</a> as a director.<sup id="cite_ref-Dawtrey_10-2" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heath_ledger#cite_note-Dawtrey-10" title="">[11]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Indep_61-0" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heath_ledger#cite_note-Indep-61" title="">[62]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Cazzulino2_24-1" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heath_ledger#cite_note-Cazzulino2-24" title="">[25]</a></sup></p> <p><a name="Press_controversies" id="Press_controversies"></a></p> <h2><span class="mw-headline">Press controversies</span></h2> <p>Ledger's relationship with the press in <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Australia" title="Australia">Australia</a> was sometimes turbulent, and it led to his relocating to <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_York_City" title="New York City">New York City</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-WENN2006_62-0" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heath_ledger#cite_note-WENN2006-62" title="">[63]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-SutherlandMoor_63-0" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heath_ledger#cite_note-SutherlandMoor-63" title="">[64]</a></sup> In 2004 he strongly denied press reports alleging that "he spat at journalists on the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sydney" title="Sydney">Sydney</a> set of the movie <i><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Candy_%282006_film%29" title="Candy (2006 film)">Candy</a></i>," or that one of his relatives had done so later, outside Ledger's Sydney home.<sup id="cite_ref-WENN2006_62-1" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heath_ledger#cite_note-WENN2006-62" title="">[63]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-SutherlandMoor_63-1" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heath_ledger#cite_note-SutherlandMoor-63" title="">[64]</a></sup> On <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/January_13" title="January 13">January 13</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2006" title="2006">2006</a>, "Several members of the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paparazzi" title="Paparazzi">paparazzi</a> retaliated ... squirting Ledger and Williams with water pistols on the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Red_carpet" title="Red carpet">red carpet</a> at the Sydney premiere of <i><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brokeback_Mountain_%28film%29" class="mw-redirect" title="Brokeback Mountain (film)">Brokeback Mountain</a></i>."<sup id="cite_ref-Sprayed_64-0" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heath_ledger#cite_note-Sprayed-64" title="">[65]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-DunnJinman_65-0" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heath_ledger#cite_note-DunnJinman-65" title="">[66]</a></sup></p> <p>After his performance on stage at the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2005_Screen_Actors_Guild_Awards" class="mw-redirect" title="2005 Screen Actors Guild Awards">2005 Screen Actors Guild Awards</a>, when he had giggled in presenting <i>Brokeback Mountain</i> as a nominee for <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Screen_Actors_Guild_Award_for_Outstanding_Performance_by_a_Cast_in_a_Motion_Picture" title="Screen Actors Guild Award for Outstanding Performance by a Cast in a Motion Picture">Outstanding Performance by a Cast in a Motion Picture</a>, the <i><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Los_Angeles_Times" title="Los Angeles Times">Los Angeles Times</a></i> referred to his presentation as an "apparent <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gay" title="Gay">gay</a> spoof."<sup id="cite_ref-Snead1_66-0" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heath_ledger#cite_note-Snead1-66" title="">[67]</a></sup> Ledger called the <i>Times</i> later and explained that his levity resulted from <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stage_fright" title="Stage fright">stage fright</a>, saying that he had been told that he would be presenting the award only minutes earlier; he stated: "I am so sorry and I apologise for my nervousness. I would be absolutely horrified if my stage fright was misinterpreted as a lack of respect for the film, the topic and for the amazing filmmakers."<sup id="cite_ref-Snead2_67-0" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heath_ledger#cite_note-Snead2-67" title="">[68]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-damagecontrol_68-0" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heath_ledger#cite_note-damagecontrol-68" title="">[69]</a></sup></p> <p>Ledger was quoted in <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/January_2006" title="January 2006">January 2006</a> in Melbourne's <i><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Herald_Sun" title="Herald Sun">Herald Sun</a></i> as saying that he heard that <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/West_Virginia" title="West Virginia">West Virginia</a> had banned <i>Brokeback Mountain</i>, which it had not; actually, a cinema in <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Utah" title="Utah">Utah</a> had banned the film.<sup id="cite_ref-SutherlandMoor_63-2" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heath_ledger#cite_note-SutherlandMoor-63" title="">[64]</a></sup> He had also referred mistakenly to West Virginia's having had <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lynchings" class="mw-redirect" title="Lynchings">lynchings</a> as recently as the 1980s, but state scholars disputed his statement, observing that, whereas lynchings did occur in <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alabama" title="Alabama">Alabama</a> as recently as 1981, according to "the director of state archives and history" quoted in <i><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Charleston_Gazette" title="The Charleston Gazette">The Charleston Gazette</a></i>, "The last documented lynching in West Virginia took place in Lewisburg in 1931."<sup id="cite_ref-Morris_69-0" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heath_ledger#cite_note-Morris-69" title="">[70]</a></sup> Yet <i>The Gazz</i> qualifies its newspaper's report somewhat further in adding, "though you have to wonder what the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ku_Klux_Klan" title="Ku Klux Klan">Klan</a> was up to in the decades after that."<sup id="cite_ref-70" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heath_ledger#cite_note-70" title="">[71]</a></sup></p> <p><a name="Effects_of_work_on_health:_sleep_disturbances" id="Effects_of_work_on_health:_sleep_disturbances"></a></p> <h2><span class="mw-headline">Effects of work on health: sleep disturbances</span></h2> <p>In a <i><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_York_Times" class="mw-redirect" title="New York Times">New York Times</a></i> interview with <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sarah_Lyall" title="Sarah Lyall">Sarah Lyall</a> published on <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/November_4" title="November 4">November 4</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2007" title="2007">2007</a>, Ledger stated that his recently-completed roles in <i>The Dark Knight</i> and <i>I'm Not There</i> had taken a toll on his ability to sleep: "Last week I probably slept an average of two hours a night. ... I couldn't stop thinking. My body was exhausted, and my mind was still going." At that time, he told Lyall that he had taken two <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ambien" class="mw-redirect" title="Ambien">Ambien</a> pills, after taking just one had not sufficed, and those left him in "a stupor, only to wake up an hour later, his mind still racing."<sup id="cite_ref-Lyall_53-1" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heath_ledger#cite_note-Lyall-53" title="">[54]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Halbfinger2_4-2" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heath_ledger#cite_note-Halbfinger2-4" title="">[5]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-APMSNBC_71-0" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heath_ledger#cite_note-APMSNBC-71" title="">[72]</a></sup></p> <p>Prior to his return to New York from his last film assignment, in London, in January 2008, while he was apparently suffering from some kind of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Respiratory_illness" class="mw-redirect" title="Respiratory illness">respiratory illness</a>, he reportedly complained to his co-star <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christopher_Plummer" title="Christopher Plummer">Christopher Plummer</a> that he was continuing to have difficulty sleeping and taking pills to help with that problem: "Confirming earlier reports that Ledger hadn't been feeling well on set, Plummer says, 'we all caught colds because we were shooting outside on horrible, damp nights. But Heath's went on and I don't think he dealt with it immediately with the antibiotics.… [sic] I think what he did have was the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Walking_pneumonia" title="Walking pneumonia">walking pneumonia</a>.'" ... On top of that, 'He was saying all the time, "dammit, I can't sleep"… [sic] and he was taking all these pills [to help him] [sic].'"<sup id="cite_ref-Stoynoff_72-0" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heath_ledger#cite_note-Stoynoff-72" title="">[73]</a></sup></p> <p>In talking with <i><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Interview_%28magazine%29" title="Interview (magazine)">Interview</a></i> magazine after his death, Ledger's former fiancée <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michelle_Williams" title="Michelle Williams">Michelle Williams</a> "also confirmed reports the actor had experienced trouble sleeping. 'For as long as I'd known him, he had bouts with <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Insomnia" title="Insomnia">insomnia</a>,' she said. 'He had too much energy. His mind was turning, turning turning always turning.' "<sup id="cite_ref-UPI_73-0" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heath_ledger#cite_note-UPI-73" title="">[74]</a></sup></p> <p><a name="Death" id="Death"></a></p> <h2><span class="mw-headline">Death</span></h2> <div class="infobox sisterproject"> <div class="floatleft"><span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Wikinews-logo.svg" class="image" title="Wikinews-logo.svg"><img alt="" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/24/Wikinews-logo.svg/45px-Wikinews-logo.svg.png" width="45" border="0" height="26" /></a></span></div> <div style="margin-left: 60px;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikinews" title="Wikinews">Wikinews</a> has related news: <div style="margin-left: 10px;"><i><b><a href="http://en.wikinews.org/wiki/Memorial_service_takes_place_for_Heath_Ledger" class="extiw" title="wikinews:Memorial_service_takes_place_for_Heath_Ledger">Memorial service takes place for Heath Ledger</a></b></i></div> </div> </div> <p>At about 2:45 PM on <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/January_22" title="January 22">January 22</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2008" title="2008">2008</a>, Ledger was found unconscious in his fourth-floor loft apartment, at 421 Broome Street, in the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SoHo" title="SoHo">SoHo</a> neighborhood of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_York_City" title="New York City">Manhattan</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-NYTBarron_0-4" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heath_ledger#cite_note-NYTBarron-0" title="">[1]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Timesobit_1-4" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heath_ledger#cite_note-Timesobit-1" title="">[2]</a></sup> Emergency crews arrived soon after but were unable to revive him.<sup id="cite_ref-NYTBarron_0-5" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heath_ledger#cite_note-NYTBarron-0" title="">[1]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-NewmanBaker_74-0" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heath_ledger#cite_note-NewmanBaker-74" title="">[75]</a></sup> He was pronounced dead at 3:36 PM, and his body removed from the apartment, while crowds of onlookers began gathering outside throughout that night.<sup id="cite_ref-NYTBarron_0-6" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heath_ledger#cite_note-NYTBarron-0" title="">[1]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-NewmanBaker_74-1" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heath_ledger#cite_note-NewmanBaker-74" title="">[75]</a></sup></p> <p>After two weeks of intense media speculation about possible causes of his death, on <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/February_6" title="February 6">6 February</a> <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2008" title="2008">2008</a>, the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coroner" title="Coroner">Office of the Chief Medical Examiner of New York</a> released its conclusions, based on an initial <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Autopsy" title="Autopsy">autopsy</a> of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/January_23" title="January 23">January 23</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2008" title="2008">2008</a>, and a subsequent complete <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Toxicology" title="Toxicology">toxicological analysis</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Lieberman_75-0" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heath_ledger#cite_note-Lieberman-75" title="">[76]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Chan_5-1" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heath_ledger#cite_note-Chan-5" title="">[6]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-CNNLedger_6-1" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heath_ledger#cite_note-CNNLedger-6" title="">[7]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-LKLLedger_76-0" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heath_ledger#cite_note-LKLLedger-76" title="">[77]</a></sup> The report concludes, in part, "Mr. Heath Ledger died as the result of acute intoxication by the combined effects of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oxycodone" title="Oxycodone">oxycodone</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydrocodone" title="Hydrocodone">hydrocodone</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diazepam" title="Diazepam">diazepam</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Temazepam" title="Temazepam">temazepam</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alprazolam" title="Alprazolam">alprazolam</a> and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doxylamine" title="Doxylamine">doxylamine</a>."<sup id="cite_ref-Chan_5-2" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heath_ledger#cite_note-Chan-5" title="">[6]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-APMSNBC_71-1" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heath_ledger#cite_note-APMSNBC-71" title="">[72]</a></sup> It also states definitively: "We have concluded that the manner of death is accident, resulting from the abuse of prescription medications."<sup id="cite_ref-Chan_5-3" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heath_ledger#cite_note-Chan-5" title="">[6]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-APMSNBC_71-2" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heath_ledger#cite_note-APMSNBC-71" title="">[72]</a></sup> The medications found in the toxicological analysis are commonly prescribed in the United States for <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Insomnia" title="Insomnia">insomnia</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anxiety" title="Anxiety">anxiety</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clinical_depression" class="mw-redirect" title="Clinical depression">depression</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pain" title="Pain">pain</a>, and/or <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Common_cold" title="Common cold">cold</a> symptoms.<sup id="cite_ref-Chan_5-4" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heath_ledger#cite_note-Chan-5" title="">[6]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-APMSNBC_71-3" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heath_ledger#cite_note-APMSNBC-71" title="">[72]</a></sup> The Medical Examiner's Office also announced that it would not be publicly disclosing the official estimated time of death.<sup id="cite_ref-PN2_77-0" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heath_ledger#cite_note-PN2-77" title="">[78]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Mitchell_78-0" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heath_ledger#cite_note-Mitchell-78" title="">[79]</a></sup> The official announcement of the cause of Ledger's death heightened concerns about general "abuse of prescription medications."<sup id="cite_ref-CNNLedger_6-2" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heath_ledger#cite_note-CNNLedger-6" title="">[7]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-LKLLedger_76-1" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heath_ledger#cite_note-LKLLedger-76" title="">[77]</a></sup> Late in February 2008, a still-ongoing <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Drug_Enforcement_Agency" class="mw-redirect" title="Drug Enforcement Agency">DEA</a> investigation of medical professionals "cleared" two American <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medic" title="Medic">medics</a>, who practice in <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Los_Angeles" class="mw-redirect" title="Los Angeles">Los Angeles</a> and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Houston" class="mw-redirect" title="Houston">Houston</a>, of "any wrongdoing," determining that "the doctors in question had prescribed Ledger other medications–not the pills that killed him."<sup id="cite_ref-Hollywoodnews_79-0" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heath_ledger#cite_note-Hollywoodnews-79" title="">[80]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Egan_80-0" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heath_ledger#cite_note-Egan-80" title="">[81]</a></sup></p> <p><a name="Memorial_tributes" id="Memorial_tributes"></a></p> <h3><span class="mw-headline">Memorial tributes</span></h3> <div class="thumb tright"> <div class="thumbinner" style="width: 182px;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:LedgerMemorial.jpg" class="image" title="Memorial for Heath Ledger outside 421 Broome Street, SoHo, Manhattan"><img alt="Memorial for Heath Ledger outside 421 Broome Street, SoHo, Manhattan" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/81/LedgerMemorial.jpg/180px-LedgerMemorial.jpg" class="thumbimage" width="180" border="0" height="267" /></a> <div class="thumbcaption"> <div class="magnify"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:LedgerMemorial.jpg" class="internal" title="Enlarge"><img src="http://en.wikipedia.org/skins-1.5/common/images/magnify-clip.png" alt="" width="15" height="11" /></a></div> Memorial for Heath Ledger outside 421 Broome Street, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SoHo" title="SoHo">SoHo</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_York_City" title="New York City">Manhattan</a></div> </div> </div> <p>On <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/January_23" title="January 23">January 23</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2008" title="2008">2008</a>, Ledger's parents and sister appeared outside his mother's house in <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Applecross%2C_Western_Australia" title="Applecross, Western Australia">Applecross</a>, a riverside suburb of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Perth%2C_Western_Australia" title="Perth, Western Australia">Perth</a>, and read a short statement to the media expressing their grief and desire for privacy.<sup id="cite_ref-DTfam_81-0" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heath_ledger#cite_note-DTfam-81" title="">[82]</a></sup> Within the next few days, memorial tributes were communicated by family members, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prime_Minister_of_Australia" title="Prime Minister of Australia">Prime Minister of Australia</a> <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kevin_Rudd" title="Kevin Rudd">Kevin Rudd</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Premier_of_Western_Australia" title="Premier of Western Australia">Deputy Premier of Western Australia</a> <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eric_Ripper" title="Eric Ripper">Eric Ripper</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Warner_Bros." title="Warner Bros.">Warner Brothers</a> (distributor of <i><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Dark_Knight_%28film%29" title="The Dark Knight (film)">The Dark Knight</a></i>, his final completed film), and thousands of Ledger's fans around the world.<sup id="cite_ref-PM_82-0" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heath_ledger#cite_note-PM-82" title="">[83]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Ripper_14-1" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heath_ledger#cite_note-Ripper-14" title="">[15]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Pendrill_83-0" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heath_ledger#cite_note-Pendrill-83" title="">[84]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-WB_84-0" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heath_ledger#cite_note-WB-84" title="">[85]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Online_85-0" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heath_ledger#cite_note-Online-85" title="">[86]</a></sup></p> <p>Numerous actors have made statements expressing their sorrow at Ledger's death, including <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Daniel_Day-Lewis" title="Daniel Day-Lewis">Daniel Day-Lewis</a> who dedicated his <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Screen_Actors_Guild_Award" class="mw-redirect" title="Screen Actors Guild Award">Screen Actors Guild Award</a> to Ledger, saying that he was inspired by Ledger's acting; Day-Lewis praised Ledger's performances in <i><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monster%27s_Ball" title="Monster's Ball">Monster's Ball</a></i> and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brokeback_Mountain_%28film%29" class="mw-redirect" title="Brokeback Mountain (film)"><i>Brokeback Mountain</i></a>, describing the latter as "unique, perfect."<sup id="cite_ref-86" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heath_ledger#cite_note-86" title="">[87]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Harris_87-0" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heath_ledger#cite_note-Harris-87" title="">[88]</a></sup></p> <p>On <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/February_1" title="February 1">February 1</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2008" title="2008">2008</a>, Michelle Williams' first public statement on the death expressed her heartbreak and described her seeing Ledger's spirit surviving in their daughter.<sup id="cite_ref-88" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heath_ledger#cite_note-88" title="">[89]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-People_89-0" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heath_ledger#cite_note-People-89" title="">[90]</a></sup></p> <p>After attending private memorial ceremonies in <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Los_Angeles" class="mw-redirect" title="Los Angeles">Los Angeles</a>, Ledger's family members returned with his body to <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Perth%2C_Western_Australia" title="Perth, Western Australia">Perth</a>. On <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/February_9" title="February 9">February 9</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2008" title="2008">2008</a>, a memorial service attended by several hundred invited guests was held at <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Penrhos_College%2C_Perth" title="Penrhos College, Perth">Penhros College</a>. After that service, Ledger's body was cremated at <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fremantle_Cemetery" title="Fremantle Cemetery">Fremantle Cemetery</a>, followed by a private service attended only by "10 closest family members",<sup id="cite_ref-Kent_18-1" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heath_ledger#cite_note-Kent-18" title="">[19]</a></sup> with his ashes to be "scattered in a family plot at <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karrakatta_Cemetery" title="Karrakatta Cemetery">Karrakatta Cemetery</a>, next to two of his grandparents."<sup id="cite_ref-Silverman_90-0" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heath_ledger#cite_note-Silverman-90" title="">[91]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Rodriguez_91-0" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heath_ledger#cite_note-Rodriguez-91" title="">[92]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-PN2_77-1" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heath_ledger#cite_note-PN2-77" title="">[78]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-LKLLedger_76-2" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heath_ledger#cite_note-LKLLedger-76" title="">[77]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-IHT_92-0" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heath_ledger#cite_note-IHT-92" title="">[93]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-funeral_93-0" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heath_ledger#cite_note-funeral-93" title="">[94]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-HammondPrior_94-0" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heath_ledger#cite_note-HammondPrior-94" title="">[95]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-swim_95-0" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heath_ledger#cite_note-swim-95" title="">[96]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-96" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heath_ledger#cite_note-96" title="">[97]</a></sup> Later that night, his family and friends gathered for a <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wake_%28ceremony%29" title="Wake (ceremony)">wake</a> on <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cottesloe%2C_Western_Australia" title="Cottesloe, Western Australia">Cottesloe Beach</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Kent_18-2" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heath_ledger#cite_note-Kent-18" title="">[19]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-beach_97-0" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heath_ledger#cite_note-beach-97" title="">[98]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-swim_95-1" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heath_ledger#cite_note-swim-95" title="">[96]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-swim2_98-0" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heath_ledger#cite_note-swim2-98" title="">[99]</a></sup></p> <p><a name=".22The_Last_Days_of_Heath_Ledger.22"></a></p> <h3><span class="mw-headline">"The Last Days of Heath Ledger"</span></h3> <p>A posthumous fictionalized account of "The Last Days of Heath Ledger," by Lisa Taddeo ("an associate editor at <i>Golf Magazine</i> and an aspiring <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fiction" title="Fiction">fiction</a> writer, [who] spent four days in restaurants and cafes and parks near where Mr. Ledger died,")<sup id="cite_ref-Taddeo_99-0" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heath_ledger#cite_note-Taddeo-99" title="">[100]</a></sup> has raised some controversy prior to its print publication in the April 2008 issue of <i><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Esquire_%28magazine%29" title="Esquire (magazine)">Esquire</a></i>.<sup id="cite_ref-Arango_100-0" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heath_ledger#cite_note-Arango-100" title="">[101]</a></sup> It covers Ledger's final four days, from <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/January_19" title="January 19">January 19</a> through <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/January_22" title="January 22">January 22</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2008" title="2008">2008</a>, the day he died, whose entry is subtitled "The Final Curtain."<sup id="cite_ref-Taddeo_99-1" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heath_ledger#cite_note-Taddeo-99" title="">[100]</a></sup> According to Edward Wasserman, Knight professor of journalism at <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Washington_and_Lee_University" title="Washington and Lee University">Washington and Lee University</a>, in <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lexington%2C_Virginia" title="Lexington, Virginia">Lexington, Virginia</a>, "The risk of a piece like 'The Last Days of Heath Ledger' is that the work winds up in a literary no-man’s land. The biggest problem I see is you are sacrificing the biggest strengths from each of the genres. You are losing the veracity of journalism, and you are losing the imaginative license of fiction. You run the risk of ending up with something that is neither true nor interesting."<sup id="cite_ref-Arango_100-1" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heath_ledger#cite_note-Arango-100" title="">[101]</a></sup></p> <p><a name="Controversy_over_will" id="Controversy_over_will"></a></p> <h3><span class="mw-headline">Controversy over will</span></h3> <p>After Heath Ledger's death, in response to some press reports about his <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Will_%28law%29" title="Will (law)">will</a>, filed in <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_York_City" title="New York City">New York City</a> on <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/February_28" title="February 28">February 28</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2008" title="2008">2008</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-will_101-0" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heath_ledger#cite_note-will-101" title="">[102]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-TMZ_102-0" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heath_ledger#cite_note-TMZ-102" title="">[103]</a></sup> and his daughter's access to his financial legacy, his father, Kim, said that he considered the financial well-being of his granddaughter Matilda Rose the Ledger family's "absolute priority" and her mother, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michelle_Williams_%28actress%29" title="Michelle Williams (actress)">Michelle Williams</a>, "an integral part of our family," adding in his public "statement:" "They will be taken care of and that's how Heath would want it to be."<sup id="cite_ref-Keatinge_103-0" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heath_ledger#cite_note-Keatinge-103" title="">[104]</a></sup> Some relatives of Heath Ledger may be challenging the legal status of his will signed in 2003 prior to the birth of his daughter, which was filed in New York and divides half of his <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Australian_dollar" title="Australian dollar">$</a>60 million estate between his parents and half among his siblings; they claim that there is a second, unsigned will, which leaves most of that estate to Matilda Rose.<sup id="cite_ref-Cowan_104-0" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heath_ledger#cite_note-Cowan-104" title="">[105]</a></sup> Williams' father, Larry, has also joined the controversy about Ledger's will as it was filed in <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_York_City" title="New York City">New York City</a> soon after his death.<sup id="cite_ref-Castellanos_105-0" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heath_ledger#cite_note-Castellanos-105" title="">[106]</a></sup> On <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/March_31" title="March 31">March 31</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2008" title="2008">2008</a>, an "Exclusive" report published in Australia stated that "Heath Ledger's family believe the late actor may have fathered a secret love child" when he was 17 and that "If it is confirmed that Ledger is the girl's biological father, it could split his multi-million dollar estate between" Matilda Rose and this "secret love child."<sup id="cite_ref-JonesFifeYeomans_106-0" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heath_ledger#cite_note-JonesFifeYeomans-106" title="">[107]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Maddox_107-0" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heath_ledger#cite_note-Maddox-107" title="">[108]</a></sup></p> <p><a name="Forthcoming_films" id="Forthcoming_films"></a></p> <h3><span class="mw-headline">Forthcoming films</span></h3> Ledger's death has affected the marketing campaign for <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christopher_Nolan" title="Christopher Nolan">Christopher Nolan's</a> <i><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Dark_Knight_%28film%29" title="The Dark Knight (film)">The Dark Knight</a></i><sup id="cite_ref-Halbfinger_9-1" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heath_ledger#cite_note-Halbfinger-9" title="">[10]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Halbfinger2_4-3" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heath_ledger#cite_note-Halbfinger2-4" title="">[5]</a></sup> and also both the production and marketing of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Terry_Gilliam" title="Terry Gilliam">Terry Gilliam's</a> <i><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Imaginarium_of_Doctor_Parnassus" title="The Imaginarium of Doctor Parnassus">The Imaginarium of Doctor Parnassus</a></i>, and both directors intend their films to celebrate and pay tribute to Ledger's work in them.<sup id="cite_ref-Halbfinger_9-2" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heath_ledger#cite_note-Halbfinger-9" title="">[10]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-CNNBind_7-1" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heath_ledger#cite_note-CNNBind-7" title="">[8]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Kilpatrick_8-1" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heath_ledger#cite_note-Kilpatrick-8" title="">[9]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Carroll_48-1" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heath_ledger#cite_note-Carroll-48" title="">[49]</a></sup> Although Gilliam temporarily suspended production on the latter film,<sup id="cite_ref-Kilpatrick_8-2" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heath_ledger#cite_note-Kilpatrick-8" title="">[9]</a></sup> he expressed determination to "salvage" it, perhaps using <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer-generated_imagery" title="Computer-generated imagery">computer-generated imagery</a> (CGI), and plans to dedicate it to the memory of Heath Ledger.<sup id="cite_ref-Gilliam_108-0" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heath_ledger#cite_note-Gilliam-108" title="">[109]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Stoynoff_72-1" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heath_ledger#cite_note-Stoynoff-72" title="">[73]</a></sup> In February 2008 actors <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johnny_Depp" title="Johnny Depp">Johnny Depp</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jude_Law" title="Jude Law">Jude Law</a>, and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Colin_Farrell" title="Colin Farrell">Colin Farrell</a> signed on to take over Ledger's role, becoming multiple incarnations of his character, Tony, transformed in the "magical" world of the film, in part as a "tribute" to Ledger.Administratorhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/08457535216173436628noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-5064508587627806524.post-22843625980125968362008-06-27T16:02:00.001-04:002008-06-27T16:04:57.878-04:00Strokes<p><b><a href="http://news.yahoo.com/s/nm/20080627/hl_nm/stroke_silent_dc;_ylt=AjFGHcGcETsNp4k.Xzc2tEMDW7oF">In the News...</a><br /></b></p><p><b>Stroke</b> is the rapidly developing loss of brain functions due to a disturbance in the blood vessels supplying blood to the brain. This can be due to <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ischemia" title="Ischemia">ischemia</a> (lack of blood supply) caused by <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thrombosis" title="Thrombosis">thrombosis</a> or <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Embolism" title="Embolism">embolism</a>, or due to a <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hemorrhage" class="mw-redirect" title="Hemorrhage">hemorrhage</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-0" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stroke#cite_note-0" title="">[1]</a></sup> In medicine, a stroke, fit, or faint is sometimes referred to as an <b>ictus [cerebri]</b>, from the Latin <i>icere</i> ("to strike"), especially prior to a definitive diagnosis. In the past, stroke was referred to as <b>cerebrovascular accident</b> or <b>CVA</b>, but the term "stroke" is now preferred.</p> <p>Stroke is a <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medical_emergency" title="Medical emergency">medical emergency</a> and can cause permanent neurological damage, complications and death if not promptly diagnosed and treated. It is the third leading cause of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Death" title="Death">death</a> in the United States. It is the leading cause of adult disability in the United States and Europe. It is the number two cause of death world-wide and may soon become the leading cause of death worldwide.<sup id="cite_ref-feigin2005_1-0" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stroke#cite_note-feigin2005-1" title="">[2]</a></sup> Risk factors for stroke include <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Old_age" title="Old age">advanced age</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hypertension" title="Hypertension">hypertension</a> (high blood pressure), previous stroke or <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transient_ischemic_attack" title="Transient ischemic attack">transient ischemic attack</a> (TIA), <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diabetes_mellitus" title="Diabetes mellitus">diabetes</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hypercholesterolemia" title="Hypercholesterolemia">high cholesterol</a>, cigarette smoking, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atrial_fibrillation" title="Atrial fibrillation">atrial fibrillation</a>, the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Contraceptive_pill" class="mw-redirect" title="Contraceptive pill">contraceptive pill</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Migraine" title="Migraine">migraine</a> with aura, and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thrombophilia" title="Thrombophilia">thrombophilia</a> (a tendency to thrombosis), <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Patent_foramen_ovale" class="mw-redirect" title="Patent foramen ovale">patent foramen ovale</a> and several rarer disorders. High blood pressure is the most important modifiable <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Risk_factor" title="Risk factor">risk factor</a> of stroke.</p> <p>The traditional definition of stroke, devised by the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_Health_Organization" title="World Health Organization">World Health Organization</a> in the 1970s,<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stroke#cite_note-2" title="">[3]</a></sup> is a "neurological deficit of cerebrovascular cause that persists beyond 24 hours or is interrupted by death within 24 hours". This definition was supposed to reflect the reversibility of tissue damage and was devised for the purpose, with the time frame of 24 hours being chosen arbitrarily. The 24-hour limit divides stroke from transient ischemic attack, which is a related syndrome of stroke symptoms that resolve completely within 24 hours. With the availability of treatments that, when given early, can reduce stroke severity, many now prefer alternative concepts, such as <b>brain attack</b> and <b>acute ischemic cerebrovascular syndrome</b> (modeled after <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Myocardial_infarction" title="Myocardial infarction">heart attack</a> and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acute_coronary_syndrome" title="Acute coronary syndrome">acute coronary syndrome</a> respectively), that reflect the urgency of stroke symptoms and the need to act swiftly.<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stroke#cite_note-3" title="">[4]</a></sup></p> Stroke is occasionally treated with <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thrombolysis" title="Thrombolysis">thrombolysis</a> ("clot-buster"), but usually with supportive care (<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physiotherapy" title="Physiotherapy">physiotherapy</a> and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Occupational_therapy" title="Occupational therapy">occupational therapy</a>) and secondary prevention with antiplatelet drugs (<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aspirin" title="Aspirin">aspirin</a> and often <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dipyridamole" title="Dipyridamole">dipyridamole</a>), blood pressure control, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Statin" title="Statin">statins</a> and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anticoagulant" title="Anticoagulant">anticoagulation</a> (in selected patients)<br /><h2><span class="mw-headline">Classification</span></h2> <div class="thumb tright"> <div class="thumbinner" style="width: 182px;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:MCA-Stroke-Brain-Human-2.JPG" class="image" title="A slice of brain from the autopsy of a person who suffered an acute middle cerebral artery (MCA) stroke"><img alt="A slice of brain from the autopsy of a person who suffered an acute middle cerebral artery (MCA) stroke" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/36/MCA-Stroke-Brain-Human-2.JPG/180px-MCA-Stroke-Brain-Human-2.JPG" class="thumbimage" width="180" border="0" height="135" /></a> <div class="thumbcaption"> <div class="magnify"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:MCA-Stroke-Brain-Human-2.JPG" class="internal" title="Enlarge"><img src="http://en.wikipedia.org/skins-1.5/common/images/magnify-clip.png" alt="" width="15" height="11" /></a></div> A slice of brain from the autopsy of a person who suffered an acute <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Middle_cerebral_artery" title="Middle cerebral artery">middle cerebral artery (MCA)</a> stroke</div> </div> </div> <p>Strokes can be classified into two major categories: ischemic and hemorrhagic. <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ischemia" title="Ischemia">Ischemia</a> is due to interruption of the blood supply, while hemorrhage is due to rupture of a <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blood_vessel" title="Blood vessel">blood vessel</a> or an abnormal vascular structure. 80% of strokes are due to ischemia; the remainder are due to hemorrhage.</p> <p><a name="Ischemic_stroke" id="Ischemic_stroke"></a></p> <h3><span class="editsection">[<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Stroke&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Ischemic stroke">edit</a>]</span> <span class="mw-headline">Ischemic stroke</span></h3> <p>In an ischemic stroke, blood supply to part of the brain is decreased, leading to dysfunction and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Necrosis" title="Necrosis">necrosis</a> of the brain tissue in that area. There are four reasons why this might happen: thrombosis (obstruction of a blood vessel by a <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blood_clot" class="mw-redirect" title="Blood clot">blood clot</a> forming locally), embolism (idem due to a embolus from elsewhere in the body, see below), systemic hypoperfusion (general decrease in blood supply, e.g. in <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shock_%28medical%29" title="Shock (medical)">shock</a>) and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cerebral_venous_sinus_thrombosis" title="Cerebral venous sinus thrombosis">venous thrombosis</a>. Stroke without an obvious explanation is termed "cryptogenic" (of unknown origin).</p> <p>A widely used classification of ischemic stroke is the Bamford classification, introduced in 1991. This relies on the presenting symptoms and physical examination to identify the area of the brain affected, and can be used to predict prognosis as well as underlying etiology:<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stroke#cite_note-5" title="">[6]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stroke#cite_note-6" title="">[7]</a></sup></p> <ul><li><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Total_anterior_circulation_infarct" title="Total anterior circulation infarct">Total anterior circulation infarct</a> (TACI)</li><li><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Partial_anterior_circulation_infarct" title="Partial anterior circulation infarct">Partial anterior circulation infarct</a> (PACI)</li><li><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lacunar_infarct" class="mw-redirect" title="Lacunar infarct">Lacunar infarct</a> (LACI)</li><li><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Posterior_circulation_infarct" title="Posterior circulation infarct">Posterior circulation infarct</a> (POCI)</li></ul> <p>Each of these gives a stereotypical clinical picture. Before the location of the infarction has been confirmed by diagnostic imaging (e.g. <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CT_scan" class="mw-redirect" title="CT scan">CT scan</a>), they may be referred to as Total Anterior Circulatory <i>Syndrome</i>, and so on (TACS, PACS, LACS, POCS).</p> <dl><dt>Thrombotic stroke</dt></dl> <p>In thrombotic stroke, a thrombus (blood clot) usually forms around <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atherosclerosis" title="Atherosclerosis">atherosclerotic</a> plaques. Since blockage of the artery is gradual, onset of symptomatic thrombotic strokes is slower. A thrombus itself (even if non-occluding) can lead to an embolic stroke (see below) if the thrombus breaks off, at which point it is called an "embolus". Thrombotic stroke can be divided into two types depending on the type of vessel the thrombus is formed on:</p> <ul><li><i>Large vessel disease</i> involves the common and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internal_carotid_artery" title="Internal carotid artery">internal carotids</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vertebral_artery" title="Vertebral artery">vertebral</a>, and the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Circle_of_Willis" title="Circle of Willis">Circle of Willis</a>. Diseases that may form thrombi in the large vessels include (in descending incidence): atherosclerosis, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vasoconstriction" title="Vasoconstriction">vasoconstriction</a> (tightening of the artery), <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aortic_dissection" title="Aortic dissection">aortic</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carotid_artery_dissection" title="Carotid artery dissection">carotid</a> or <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vertebral_artery_dissection" title="Vertebral artery dissection">vertebral artery dissection</a>, various inflammatory diseases of the blood vessel wall (<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Takayasu_arteritis" class="mw-redirect" title="Takayasu arteritis">Takayasu arteritis</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Giant_cell_arteritis" class="mw-redirect" title="Giant cell arteritis">giant cell arteritis</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vasculitis" title="Vasculitis">vasculitis</a>), noninflammatory vasculopathy, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moyamoya_disease" title="Moyamoya disease">Moyamoya disease</a> and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fibromuscular_dysplasia" title="Fibromuscular dysplasia">fibromuscular dysplasia</a>.</li><li><i>Small vessel disease</i> involves the smaller arteries inside the brain: branches of the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Circle_of_Willis" title="Circle of Willis">circle of Willis</a>, middle cerebral artery, stem, and arteries arising from the distal vertebral and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Basilar_artery" title="Basilar artery">basilar artery</a>. Diseases that may form thrombi in the small vessels include (in descending incidence): <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Lipohyalinosis&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Lipohyalinosis (page does not exist)">lipohyalinosis</a> (build-up of fatty hyaline matter in the blood vessel as a result of high blood pressure and aging) and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Fibrinoid_degeneration&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Fibrinoid degeneration (page does not exist)">fibrinoid degeneration</a> (stroke involving these vessels are known as <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lacunar_infarcts" class="mw-redirect" title="Lacunar infarcts">lacunar infarcts</a>) and microatheroma (small atherosclerotic plaques).</li></ul> <p><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sickle-cell_disease" title="Sickle-cell disease">Sickle cell anemia</a>, which can cause <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blood_cell" title="Blood cell">blood cells</a> to clump up and block blood vessels, can also lead to stroke. Stroke is the second leading killer of people under 20 who suffer from sickle-cell anemia.<sup id="cite_ref-NINDS1999_7-0" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stroke#cite_note-NINDS1999-7" title="">[8]</a></sup></p> <dl><dt>Embolic stroke</dt></dl> <p>Embolic stroke refers to the blockage of an artery by an <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Embolus" class="mw-redirect" title="Embolus">embolus</a>, a traveling particle or debris in the arterial bloodstream originating from elsewhere. An embolus is most frequently a thrombus, but it can also be a number of other substances including <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fat" title="Fat">fat</a> (e.g. from <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bone_marrow" title="Bone marrow">bone marrow</a> in a <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bone_fracture" title="Bone fracture">broken bone</a>), air, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cancer" title="Cancer">cancer</a> cells or clumps of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bacteria" title="Bacteria">bacteria</a> (usually from infectious <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Endocarditis" title="Endocarditis">endocarditis</a>).</p> <p>Because an embolus arises from elsewhere, local therapy only solves the problem temporarily. Thus, the source of the embolus must be identified. Because the embolic blockage is sudden in onset, symptoms usually are maximal at start. Also, symptoms may be transient as the embolus is partially resorbed and moves to a different location or dissipates altogether.</p> <p>Emboli most commonly arise from the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heart" title="Heart">heart</a> (especially in atrial fibrillation) but may originate from elsewhere in the arterial tree. In <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paradoxical_embolism" title="Paradoxical embolism">paradoxical embolism</a>, a <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deep_vein_thrombosis" title="Deep vein thrombosis">deep vein thrombosis</a> embolises through an <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atrial_septal_defect" title="Atrial septal defect">atrial</a> or <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ventricular_septal_defect" title="Ventricular septal defect">ventricular septal defect</a> in the heart into the brain.</p> <p>Cardiac causes can be distinguished between high- and low-risk:<sup id="cite_ref-ay_8-0" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stroke#cite_note-ay-8" title="">[9]</a></sup></p> <ul><li>High risk: atrial fibrillation and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paroxysmal_atrial_fibrillation" class="mw-redirect" title="Paroxysmal atrial fibrillation">paroxysmal atrial fibrillation</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rheumatic_fever" title="Rheumatic fever">rheumatic disease</a> of the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mitral_valve" title="Mitral valve">mitral</a> or <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aortic_valve" title="Aortic valve">aortic valve</a> disease, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Artificial_heart_valve" title="Artificial heart valve">artificial heart valves</a>, known cardiac thrombus of the atrium or vertricle, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sick_sinus_syndrome" title="Sick sinus syndrome">sick sinus syndrome</a>, sustained <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atrial_flutter" title="Atrial flutter">atrial flutter</a>, recent myocardial infarction, chronic myocardial infarction together with <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ejection_fraction" title="Ejection fraction">ejection fraction</a> <28 href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Congestive_heart_failure" class="mw-redirect" title="Congestive heart failure">congestive heart failure with ejection fraction <30 href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dilated_cardiomyopathy" title="Dilated cardiomyopathy">dilated cardiomyopathy, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Libman-Sacks_endocarditis" title="Libman-Sacks endocarditis">Libman-Sacks endocarditis</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marantic_endocarditis" title="Marantic endocarditis">Marantic endocarditis</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infective_endocarditis" class="mw-redirect" title="Infective endocarditis">infective endocarditis</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Papillary_fibroelastoma" title="Papillary fibroelastoma">papillary fibroelastoma</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Left_atrial_myxoma" title="Left atrial myxoma">left atrial myxoma</a> and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coronary_artery_bypass_graft" class="mw-redirect" title="Coronary artery bypass graft">coronary artery bypass graft</a> (CABG) surgery</li><li>Low risk/potential: calcification of the annulus (ring) of the mitral valve, patent foramen ovale (PFO), atrial septal aneurysm, atrial septal aneurysm <i>with</i> patent foramen ovale, left ventricular aneurysm without thrombus, isolated left atrial "smoke" on <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Echocardiography" title="Echocardiography">echocardiography</a> (no <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mitral_stenosis" title="Mitral stenosis">mitral stenosis</a> or atrial fibrillation), complex atheroma in the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ascending_aorta" title="Ascending aorta">ascending aorta</a> or proximal arch</li></ul> <dl><dt>Systemic hypoperfusion</dt></dl> <p>Systemic hypoperfusion is the reduction of blood flow to all parts of the body. It is most commonly due to <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heart-lung_machine" class="mw-redirect" title="Heart-lung machine">cardiac pump</a> failure from <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cardiac_arrest" title="Cardiac arrest">cardiac arrest</a> or arrhythmias, or from reduced <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cardiac_output" title="Cardiac output">cardiac output</a> as a result of myocardial infarction, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pulmonary_embolism" title="Pulmonary embolism">pulmonary embolism</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pericardial_effusion" title="Pericardial effusion">pericardial effusion</a>, or bleeding. <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hypoxia_%28medical%29" title="Hypoxia (medical)">Hypoxemia</a> (low blood oxygen content) may precipitate the hypoperfusion. Because the reduction in blood flow is global, all parts of the brain may be affected, especially "watershed" areas - border zone regions supplied by the major cerebral arteries. Blood flow to these areas does not necessarily stop, but instead it may lessen to the point where brain damage can occur. This phenomenon is also referred to as "last meadow" to point to the fact that in irrigation the last meadow receives the least amount of water.</p> <dl><dt>Venous thrombosis</dt></dl> <p><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cerebral_venous_sinus_thrombosis" title="Cerebral venous sinus thrombosis">Cerebral venous sinus thrombosis</a> leads to stroke due to locally increased venous pressure, which exceeds the pressure generated by the arteries. Infarcts are more likely to undergo hemorrhagic transformation (leaking of blood into the damaged area) than other types of ischemic stroke.</p> <p><a name="Hemorrhagic_stroke" id="Hemorrhagic_stroke"></a></p> <h3><span class="editsection">[<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Stroke&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Hemorrhagic stroke">edit</a>]</span> <span class="mw-headline">Hemorrhagic stroke</span></h3> <dl><dd> <div class="noprint relarticle mainarticle"><i>Main articles: <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intracranial_hemorrhage" title="Intracranial hemorrhage">Intracranial hemorrhage</a> and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intracerebral_hemorrhage" class="mw-redirect" title="Intracerebral hemorrhage">intracerebral hemorrhage</a></i></div> </dd></dl> <div class="thumb tright"> <div class="thumbinner" style="width: 172px;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Intracerebral_heamorrage_2.jpg" class="image" title="CT scan showing an intracerebral hemorrhage."><img alt="CT scan showing an intracerebral hemorrhage." src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/47/Intracerebral_heamorrage_2.jpg/170px-Intracerebral_heamorrage_2.jpg" class="thumbimage" width="170" border="0" height="210" /></a> <div class="thumbcaption"> <div class="magnify"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Intracerebral_heamorrage_2.jpg" class="internal" title="Enlarge"><img src="http://en.wikipedia.org/skins-1.5/common/images/magnify-clip.png" alt="" width="15" height="11" /></a></div> CT scan showing an intracerebral hemorrhage.</div> </div> </div> <p>Intracranial hemorrhage is the accumulation of blood anywhere within the skull vault. A distinction is made between <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intra-axial_hemorrhage" class="mw-redirect" title="Intra-axial hemorrhage">intra-axial hemorrhage</a> (blood inside the brain) and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extra-axial_hemorrhage" class="mw-redirect" title="Extra-axial hemorrhage">extra-axial hemorrhage</a> (blood inside the skull but outside the brain). Intra-axial hemorrhage is due to <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intraparenchymal_hemorrhage" title="Intraparenchymal hemorrhage">intraparenchymal hemorrhage</a> or <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intraventricular_hemorrhage" title="Intraventricular hemorrhage">intraventricular hemorrhage</a> (blood in the ventricular system). The main types of extra-axial hemorrhage are <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epidural_hematoma" title="Epidural hematoma">epidural hematoma</a> (bleeding between the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dura_mater" title="Dura mater">dura mater</a> and the skull), <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Subdural_hematoma" title="Subdural hematoma">subdural hematoma</a> (in the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Subdural_space" title="Subdural space">subdural space</a>) and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Subarachnoid_hemorrhage" title="Subarachnoid hemorrhage">subarachnoid hemorrhage</a> (between the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arachnoid_mater" title="Arachnoid mater">arachnoid mater</a> and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pia_mater" title="Pia mater">pia mater</a>). Most of the hemorrhagic stroke syndromes have specific symptoms (e.g. <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Headache" title="Headache">headache</a>, previous <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Head_injury" title="Head injury">head injury</a>).</p> <p><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intracerebral_hemorrhage" class="mw-redirect" title="Intracerebral hemorrhage">Intracerebral hemorrhage</a> (ICH) is bleeding directly into the brain tissue, forming a gradually enlarging <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hematoma" title="Hematoma">hematoma</a> (pooling of blood). It generally occurs in small arteries or arterioles and is commonly due to hypertension, trauma, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Haemophilia" title="Haemophilia">bleeding disorders</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amyloid_angiopathy" class="mw-redirect" title="Amyloid angiopathy">amyloid angiopathy</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Drug_use" title="Drug use">illicit drug use</a> (e.g. amphetamines or <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cocaine" title="Cocaine">cocaine</a>), and vascular malformations. The hematoma enlarges until pressure from surrounding tissue limits its growth, or until it decompresses by emptying into the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ventricular_system" title="Ventricular system">ventricular system</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cerebrospinal_fluid" title="Cerebrospinal fluid">CSF</a> or the pial surface. A third of intracerebral bleed is into the brain's ventricles. ICH has a <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mortality_rate" title="Mortality rate">mortality rate</a> of 44 percent after 30 days, higher than ischemic stroke or even the very deadly subarachnoid hemorrhage.</p> <p><a name="Signs_and_symptoms" id="Signs_and_symptoms"></a></p> <h2><span class="editsection">[<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Stroke&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Signs and symptoms">edit</a>]</span> <span class="mw-headline">Signs and symptoms</span></h2> <p>Stroke <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Symptom" title="Symptom">symptoms</a> typically develop rapidly (seconds to minutes). The symptoms of a stroke are related to the anatomical location of the damage; nature and severity of the symptoms can therefore vary widely. Ischemic strokes usually only affect regional areas of the brain perfused by the blocked artery. Hemorrhagic strokes can affect local areas, but often can also cause more global symptoms due to bleeding and increased intracranial pressure. On the basis of the history and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neurological_examination" title="Neurological examination">neurological examination</a>, as well as the presence of risk factors, a doctor can rapidly diagnose the <i>anatomical</i> nature of the stroke (i.e. which part of the brain is affected), even if the exact cause is not yet known.</p> <p>Pre-hospital care professionals in the United Kingdom will typically want to identify stroke risk very rapidly. If they suspect a stroke, they will typically use the FAST test to assess likelihood:</p> <ul><li>Face - look to see if there is any drooping or loss of muscle tone on the face</li><li>Arm - ask the patient to close their eyes and hold both arms out straight for 30 seconds - in a patient with a stroke, you might see one arm tending to slowly move down</li><li>Speech - listen to see if you can hear any slurring of the speech not otherwise explained (e.g. alcohol) and see if they can answer simple questions (where are you?, what's your name?, what day of the week is it?)</li><li>Test all three - given that any one of the four signs might be present, all three have to be tested (and documented)</li></ul> <p>If the area of the brain affected contains one of the three prominent <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neural_pathway" title="Neural pathway">Central nervous system pathways</a>—the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spinothalamic_tract" title="Spinothalamic tract">spinothalamic tract</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Corticospinal_tract" title="Corticospinal tract">corticospinal tract</a>, and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dorsal_column" class="mw-redirect" title="Dorsal column">dorsal column</a> (<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medial_lemniscus" title="Medial lemniscus">medial lemniscus</a>), symptoms may include:</p> <ul><li><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hemiplegia" title="Hemiplegia">hemiplegia</a> and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Central_facial_palsy" title="Central facial palsy">muscle weakness of the face</a></li><li>numbness</li><li>reduction in sensory or vibratory sensation</li></ul> <p>In most cases, the symptoms affect only one side of the body (<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unilateral" class="mw-redirect" title="Unilateral">unilateral</a>). The defect in the brain is <i>usually</i> on the opposite side of the body (depending on which part of the brain is affected). However, the presence of any one of these symptoms does not necessarily suggest a stroke, since these pathways also travel in the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spinal_cord" title="Spinal cord">spinal cord</a> and any lesion there can also produce these symptoms.</p> <p>In addition to the above CNS pathways, the <i><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brainstem" class="mw-redirect" title="Brainstem">brainstem</a></i> also consists of the 12 <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cranial_nerves" title="Cranial nerves">cranial nerves</a>. A stroke affecting the brainstem therefore can produce symptoms relating to deficits in these cranial nerves:</p> <ul><li>altered smell, taste, hearing, or vision (total or partial)</li><li>drooping of eyelid (<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ptosis_%28eyelid%29" title="Ptosis (eyelid)">ptosis</a>) and weakness of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extraocular_muscles" title="Extraocular muscles">ocular muscles</a></li><li>decreased reflexes: gag, swallow, pupil reactivity to light</li><li>decreased sensation and muscle weakness of the face</li><li><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Balance_disorder" title="Balance disorder">balance problems</a> and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nystagmus" title="Nystagmus">nystagmus</a></li><li>altered breathing and heart rate</li><li>weakness in <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sternocleidomastoid_muscle" title="Sternocleidomastoid muscle">sternocleidomastoid muscle</a> with inability to turn head to one side</li><li>weakness in tongue (inability to protrude and/or move from side to side)</li></ul> <p>If the <i><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cerebral_cortex" title="Cerebral cortex">cerebral cortex</a></i> is involved, the CNS pathways can again be affected, but also can produce the following symptoms:</p> <ul><li><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aphasia" title="Aphasia">aphasia</a> (inability to speak or understand language from involvement of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Broca%27s_area" title="Broca's area">Broca's</a> or <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wernicke%27s_area" title="Wernicke's area">Wernicke's area</a>)</li><li><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apraxia" title="Apraxia">apraxia</a> (altered voluntary movements)</li><li><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Visual_field" title="Visual field">visual field</a> defect</li><li>memory deficits (involvement of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Temporal_lobe" title="Temporal lobe">temporal lobe</a>)</li><li><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hemineglect" class="mw-redirect" title="Hemineglect">hemineglect</a> (involvement of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parietal_lobe" title="Parietal lobe">parietal lobe</a>)</li><li>disorganized thinking, confusion, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hypersexual" class="mw-redirect" title="Hypersexual">hypersexual</a> gestures (with involvement of frontal lobe)</li><li>anosognosia (persistent denial of the existence of a, usually stroke-related, deficit)</li></ul> <p>If the <i><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cerebellum" title="Cerebellum">cerebellum</a></i> is involved, the patient may have the following:</p> <ul><li>trouble walking</li><li>altered movement coordination</li><li><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vertigo_%28medical%29" title="Vertigo (medical)">vertigo</a> and or disequilibrium</li></ul> <p><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unconsciousness" title="Unconsciousness">Loss of consciousness</a>, headache, and vomiting usually occurs more often in hemorrhagic stroke than in thrombosis because of the increased intracranial pressure from the leaking blood compressing on the brain.</p> <p>If symptoms are maximal at onset, the cause is more likely to be a subarachnoid hemorrhage or an embolic stroke.</p> <p><a name="Pathophysiology" id="Pathophysiology"></a></p> <h2><span class="editsection">[<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Stroke&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Pathophysiology">edit</a>]</span> <span class="mw-headline">Pathophysiology</span></h2> <p>Ischemic stroke occurs due to a loss of blood supply to part of the brain, initiating the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ischemic_cascade" title="Ischemic cascade">ischemic cascade</a>. Brain tissue ceases to function if deprived of oxygen for more than 60 to 90 seconds and after a few hours will suffer irreversible injury possibly leading to death of the tissue, i.e., <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infarction" title="Infarction">infarction</a>. Atherosclerosis may disrupt the blood supply by narrowing the lumen of blood vessels leading to a reduction of blood flow, by causing the formation of blood clots within the vessel, or by releasing showers of small <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emboli" class="mw-redirect" title="Emboli">emboli</a> through the disintegration of atherosclerotic plaques. Embolic infarction occurs when emboli formed elsewhere in the circulatory system, typically in the heart as a consequence of atria fibriliation, or in the carotid arteries. These break off, enter the cerebral circulation, then lodge in and occlude brain blood vessels.</p> <p>Due to <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anastomosis" title="Anastomosis">collateral circulation</a>, within the region of brain tissue affected by ischemia there is a spectrum of severity. Thus, part of the tissue may immediately die while other parts may only be injured and could potentially recover. The ischemia area where tissue might recover is referred to as the <i>ischemic <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Penumbra" class="mw-redirect" title="Penumbra">penumbra</a></i>.</p> <p>As oxygen or glucose becomes depleted in ischemic brain tissue, the production of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/High_energy_phosphate" class="mw-redirect" title="High energy phosphate">high energy phosphate</a> compounds such as adenosine triphosphate (ATP) fails leading to failure of energy dependent processes (such as ion pumping) necessary for tissue cell survival. This sets off a series of interrelated events that result in cellular injury and death. A major cause of neuronal injury is release of the excitatory neurotransmitter glutamate. The concentration of glutamate outside the cells of the nervous system is normally kept low by so-called uptake carriers, which are powered by the concentration gradients of ions (mainly Na<sup>+</sup>) across the cell membrane. However, stroke cuts off the supply of oxygen and glucose which powers the ion pumps maintaining these gradients. As a result the transmembrane ion gradients run down, and glutamate transporters reverse their direction, releasing glutamate into the extracellular space. Glutamate acts on receptors in nerve cells (especially NMDA receptors), producing an influx of calcium which activates enzymes that digest the cells' proteins, lipids and nuclear material. Calcium influx can also lead to the failure of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mitochondria" class="mw-redirect" title="Mitochondria">mitochondria</a>, which can lead further toward energy depletion and may trigger cell death due to apoptosis.</p> <p>Ischaemia also induces production of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radical_%28chemistry%29" title="Radical (chemistry)">oxygen free radicals</a> and other <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reactive_oxygen_species" title="Reactive oxygen species">reactive oxygen species</a>. These react with and damage a number of cellular and extracellular elements. Damage to the blood vessel lining or endothelium is particularly important. In fact, many antioxidant neuroprotectants such as <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uric_acid" title="Uric acid">uric acid</a> and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NXY-059" class="mw-redirect" title="NXY-059">NXY-059</a> work at the level of the endothelium and not in the brain <i>per se</i>. Free radicals also directly initiate elements of the apoptosis cascade by means of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Redox_signaling" title="Redox signaling">redox signaling</a> .<sup id="cite_ref-NINDS1999_7-1" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stroke#cite_note-NINDS1999-7" title="">[8]</a></sup></p> <p>These processes are the same for any type of ischemic tissue and are referred to collectively as the <i>ischemic cascade</i>. However, brain tissue is especially vulnerable to ischemia since it has little respiratory reserve and is completely dependent on <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aerobic_metabolism" class="mw-redirect" title="Aerobic metabolism">aerobic metabolism</a>, unlike most other organs.</p> <p>Brain tissue survival can be improved to some extent if one or more of these processes is inhibited. Drugs that scavenge <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reactive_oxygen_species" title="Reactive oxygen species">Reactive oxygen species</a>, inhibit <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apoptosis" title="Apoptosis">apoptosis</a>, or inhibit excitotoxic neurotransmitters, for example, have been shown experimentally to reduce tissue injury due to ischemia. Agents that work in this way are referred to as being <i>neuroprotective</i>. Until recently, human <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clinical_trial" title="Clinical trial">clinical trials</a> with neuroprotective agents have failed, with the probable exception of deep barbiturate coma. However, more recently NXY-059, the disulfonyl derivative of the radical-scavenging <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Spintrap&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Spintrap (page does not exist)">spintrap</a> phenylbutylnitrone, is <a href="http://content.nejm.org/cgi/content/short/354/6/588" class="external text" title="http://content.nejm.org/cgi/content/short/354/6/588" rel="nofollow">reported</a> be neuroprotective in stroke. This agent appears to work at the level of the blood vessel lining or endothelium. Unfortunately, after producing favorable results in one large-scale clinical trial, a second trial failed to show favorable results.<sup id="cite_ref-NINDS1999_7-2" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stroke#cite_note-NINDS1999-7" title="">[8]</a></sup></p> <p>In addition to injurious effects on brain cells, ischemia and infarction can result in loss of structural integrity of brain tissue and blood vessels, partly through the release of matrix metalloproteases, which are zinc- and calcium-dependent enzymes that break down collagen, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hyaluronan" title="Hyaluronan">hyaluronic acid</a>, and other elements of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Connective_tissue" title="Connective tissue">connective tissue</a>. Other proteases also contribute to this process. The loss of vascular structural integrity results in a breakdown of the protective <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blood_brain_barrier" class="mw-redirect" title="Blood brain barrier">blood brain barrier</a> that contributes to <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cerebral_edema" title="Cerebral edema">cerebral edema</a>, which can cause secondary progression of the brain injury.</p> <p>As is the case with any type of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Traumatic_brain_injury" title="Traumatic brain injury">brain injury</a>, the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Immune_system" title="Immune system">immune system</a> is activated by cerebral infarction and may under some circumstances exacerbate the injury caused by the infarction. Inhibition of the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inflammation" title="Inflammation">inflammatory response</a> has been shown experimentally to reduce tissue injury due to cerebral infarction, but this has not proved out in clinical studies.</p> <p>Hemorrhagic strokes result in tissue injury by causing compression of tissue from an expanding hematoma or hematomas. This can distort and injure tissue. In addition, the pressure may lead to a loss of blood supply to affected tissue with resulting infarction, and the blood released by brain hemorrhage appears to have direct toxic effects on brain tissue and vasculature.<sup id="cite_ref-NINDS1999_7-3" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stroke#cite_note-NINDS1999-7" title="">[8]</a></sup></p> <p><a name="Diagnosis" id="Diagnosis"></a></p> <h2><span class="editsection">[<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Stroke&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Diagnosis">edit</a>]</span> <span class="mw-headline">Diagnosis</span></h2> <p>Stroke is diagnosed through several techniques: a neurological examination, CT scans (most often without contrast enhancements) or <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MRI_scan" class="mw-redirect" title="MRI scan">MRI scans</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doppler_ultrasound" class="mw-redirect" title="Doppler ultrasound">Doppler ultrasound</a>, and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arteriography" class="mw-redirect" title="Arteriography">arteriography</a>. The diagnosis of stroke itself is clinical, with assistance from the imaging techniques. Imaging techniques also assist in determining the subtypes and cause of stroke. There is yet no commonly used <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blood_test" title="Blood test">blood test</a> for the stroke diagnosis itself, though blood tests may be of help in finding out the likely cause of stroke.<sup id="cite_ref-hill2005_9-0" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stroke#cite_note-hill2005-9" title="">[10]</a></sup></p> <p><a name="Physical_examination" id="Physical_examination"></a></p> <h3><span class="editsection">[<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Stroke&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Physical examination">edit</a>]</span> <span class="mw-headline">Physical examination</span></h3> <p>A <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Systematic_review" title="Systematic review">systematic review</a> found that acute facial paresis, arm drift, or abnormal speech are the best findings.<sup id="cite_ref-pmid15900010_10-0" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stroke#cite_note-pmid15900010-10" title="">[11]</a></sup></p> <p><a name="Imaging" id="Imaging"></a></p> <h3><span class="editsection">[<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Stroke&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Imaging">edit</a>]</span> <span class="mw-headline">Imaging</span></h3> <p>For diagnosing ischemic stroke in the emergency setting:<sup id="cite_ref-pmid17258669_11-0" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stroke#cite_note-pmid17258669-11" title="">[12]</a></sup></p> <ul><li>CT scans (<i>without</i> contrast enhancements)</li></ul> <dl><dd><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sensitivity_%28tests%29" class="mw-redirect" title="Sensitivity (tests)">sensitivity</a>= 16%</dd><dd><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Specificity_%28tests%29" class="mw-redirect" title="Specificity (tests)">specificity</a>= 96%</dd></dl> <ul><li>MRI scan</li></ul> <dl><dd>sensitivity= 83%</dd><dd>specificity= 98%</dd></dl> <p>For diagnosing hemorrhagic stroke in the emergency setting:</p> <ul><li>CT scans (<i>without</i> contrast enhancements)</li></ul> <dl><dd>sensitivity= 89%</dd><dd>specificity= 100%</dd></dl> <ul><li>MRI scan</li></ul> <dl><dd>sensitivity= 81%</dd><dd>specificity= 100%</dd></dl> <p>For detecting chronic hemorrhages, MRI scan is more sensitive.<sup id="cite_ref-pmid15494579_12-0" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stroke#cite_note-pmid15494579-12" title="">[13]</a></sup></p> <p>For the assessment of stable stroke, nuclear medicine scans SPECT and PET/CT may be helpful. SPECT documents cerebral blood flow and PET with FDG isotope the metabolic activity of the neurons.</p> <p><a name="Underlying_etiology" id="Underlying_etiology"></a></p> <h3><span class="editsection">[<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Stroke&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Underlying etiology">edit</a>]</span> <span class="mw-headline">Underlying etiology</span></h3> <p>When a stroke has been diagnosed, various other studies may be performed to determine the underlying etiology. With the current treatment and diagnosis options available, it is of particular importance to determine whether there is a peripheral source of emboli. Test selection may vary, since the cause of stroke varies with age, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comorbidity" title="Comorbidity">comorbidity</a> and the clinical presentation. Commonly used techniques include:</p> <ul><li>an <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medical_ultrasonography" title="Medical ultrasonography">ultrasound/doppler study</a> of the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carotid_artery" class="mw-redirect" title="Carotid artery">carotid arteries</a> (to detect <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carotid_stenosis" class="mw-redirect" title="Carotid stenosis">carotid stenosis</a>) or dissection of the precerebral arteries</li><li>an <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrocardiogram" title="Electrocardiogram">electrocardiogram</a> (ECG) and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Echocardiogram" class="mw-redirect" title="Echocardiogram">echocardiogram</a> (to identify <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cardiac_arrhythmia" title="Cardiac arrhythmia">arrhythmias</a> and resultant clots in the heart which may spread to the brain vessels through the bloodstream)</li><li>a <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Holter_monitor" title="Holter monitor">Holter monitor</a> study to identify intermittent arrhythmias</li><li>an <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Angiogram" title="Angiogram">angiogram</a> of the cerebral vasculature (if a bleed is thought to have originated from an <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aneurysm" title="Aneurysm">aneurysm</a> or <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arteriovenous_malformation" title="Arteriovenous malformation">arteriovenous malformation</a>)</li><li>blood tests to determine hypercholesterolemia, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bleeding_diathesis" title="Bleeding diathesis">bleeding diathesis</a> and some rarer causes such as <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homocysteinuria" class="mw-redirect" title="Homocysteinuria">homocysteinuria</a></li></ul> <p><a name="Prevention" id="Prevention"></a></p> <h2><span class="editsection">[<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Stroke&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Prevention">edit</a>]</span> <span class="mw-headline">Prevention</span></h2> <p>Given the disease burden of stroke, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prevention_%28medical%29" title="Prevention (medical)">prevention</a> is an important <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Public_health" title="Public health">public health</a> concern.<sup id="cite_ref-pmid12234233_13-0" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stroke#cite_note-pmid12234233-13" title="">[14]</a></sup> Primary prevention is a lot less effective than secondary prevention (as judged by the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Number_needed_to_treat" title="Number needed to treat">number needed to treat</a> to prevent one stroke per year).<sup id="cite_ref-pmid12234233_13-1" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stroke#cite_note-pmid12234233-13" title="">[14]</a></sup> Recent guidelines detail the evidence for primary prevention in stroke.<sup id="cite_ref-PreventionGuidelines_14-0" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stroke#cite_note-PreventionGuidelines-14" title="">[15]</a></sup> Because stroke may indicate underlying atherosclerosis, it is important to determine the patient's risk for other cardiovascular diseases such as <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coronary_heart_disease" class="mw-redirect" title="Coronary heart disease">coronary heart disease</a>. Conversely, aspirin prevents against first stroke in patients who have suffered a myocardial infarction.<sup id="cite_ref-BMJ2002_15-0" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stroke#cite_note-BMJ2002-15" title="">[16]</a></sup></p> <p>The most important modifiable risk factors for stroke are high blood pressure and atrial fibrillation. Other modifiable risk factors include high blood cholesterol levels, diabetes, cigarette smoking<sup id="cite_ref-pmid2496858_16-0" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stroke#cite_note-pmid2496858-16" title="">[17]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-pmid7596004_17-0" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stroke#cite_note-pmid7596004-17" title="">[18]</a></sup> (active and passive), heavy <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alcohol_consumption_and_health" class="mw-redirect" title="Alcohol consumption and health">alcohol consumption</a><sup id="cite_ref-pmid12578491_18-0" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stroke#cite_note-pmid12578491-18" title="">[19]</a></sup> and drug use,<sup id="cite_ref-pmid1891081_19-0" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stroke#cite_note-pmid1891081-19" title="">[20]</a></sup> lack of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physical_activity" class="mw-redirect" title="Physical activity">physical activity</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Obesity" title="Obesity">obesity</a> and unhealthy diet.<sup id="cite_ref-americanheart_risk_20-0" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stroke#cite_note-americanheart_risk-20" title="">[21]</a></sup> Alcohol use could predispose to ischemic stroke, and intracerebral and subarachnoid hemorrhage via multiple mechanisms (for example via hypertension, atrial fibrillation, rebound <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thrombocytosis" title="Thrombocytosis">thrombocytosis</a> and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Platelet_aggregation" class="mw-redirect" title="Platelet aggregation">platelet aggregation</a> and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clotting" class="mw-redirect" title="Clotting">clotting</a> disturbances).<sup id="cite_ref-pmid3810763_21-0" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stroke#cite_note-pmid3810763-21" title="">[22]</a></sup> The drugs most commonly associated with stroke are cocaine, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amphetamines" class="mw-redirect" title="Amphetamines">amphetamines</a> causing hemorrhagic stroke, but also <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Over-the-counter" title="Over-the-counter">over-the-counter</a> cough and cold drugs containing <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sympathomimetics" class="mw-redirect" title="Sympathomimetics">sympathomimetics</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-pmid17404126_22-0" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stroke#cite_note-pmid17404126-22" title="">[23]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-pmid12791938_23-0" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stroke#cite_note-pmid12791938-23" title="">[24]</a></sup></p> <p>No high quality studies have shown the effectiveness of interventions aimed at weight reduction, promotion of regular exercise, reducing alcohol consumption or <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Smoking_cessation" title="Smoking cessation">smoking cessation</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-pmid14705756_24-0" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stroke#cite_note-pmid14705756-24" title="">[25]</a></sup> Nonetheless, given the large body of circumstantial evidence, best medical management for stroke includes advise on diet, exercise, smoking and alcohol use.<sup id="cite_ref-endart-review_25-0" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stroke#cite_note-endart-review-25" title="">[26]</a></sup> Medication or <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pharmacology" title="Pharmacology">drug therapy</a> is the most common method of stroke prevention; <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carotid_endarterectomy" title="Carotid endarterectomy">carotid endarterectomy</a> can be a useful surgical method of preventing stroke.</p> <dl><dt>Blood pressure</dt></dl> <p><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hypertension" title="Hypertension">Hypertension</a> accounts for 35-50% of stroke risk.<sup id="cite_ref-pmid8614485_26-0" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stroke#cite_note-pmid8614485-26" title="">[27]</a></sup> <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epidemiological" class="mw-redirect" title="Epidemiological">Epidemiological</a> studies suggest that even a small blood pressure reduction (5 to 6 mmHg systolic, 2 to 3 mmHg diastolic) would result in 40% fewer strokes.<sup id="cite_ref-pmid1969567_27-0" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stroke#cite_note-pmid1969567-27" title="">[28]</a></sup> Lowering blood pressure has been conclusively shown to prevent both ischemic and hemorrhagic strokes.<sup id="cite_ref-Psaty2003_28-0" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stroke#cite_note-Psaty2003-28" title="">[29]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-pmid8551820_29-0" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stroke#cite_note-pmid8551820-29" title="">[30]</a></sup> It is equally important in secondary prevention.<sup id="cite_ref-pmid9412649_30-0" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stroke#cite_note-pmid9412649-30" title="">[31]</a></sup> Even patients older than 80 years and those with <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isolated_systolic_hypertension" class="mw-redirect" title="Isolated systolic hypertension">isolated systolic hypertension</a> benefit from antihypertensive therapy.<sup id="cite_ref-INDANAsub_31-0" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stroke#cite_note-INDANAsub-31" title="">[32]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Staessen2000_32-0" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stroke#cite_note-Staessen2000-32" title="">[33]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-HYVET-NEJM2008_33-0" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stroke#cite_note-HYVET-NEJM2008-33" title="">[34]</a></sup> Studies show that intensive antihypertensive therapy results in a greater risk reduction.<sup id="cite_ref-BPLT_34-0" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stroke#cite_note-BPLT-34" title="">[35]</a></sup> The available evidence does not show large differences in stroke prevention between antihypertensive drugs —therefore, other factors such as protection against other forms of cardiovascular disease should be considered and cost.<sup id="cite_ref-BPLT_34-1" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stroke#cite_note-BPLT-34" title="">[35]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-pmid12479763_35-0" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stroke#cite_note-pmid12479763-35" title="">[36]</a></sup></p> <dl><dt>Atrial fibrillation</dt></dl> <p>Patients with atrial fibrillation have a risk of 5% each year to develop stroke, and this risk is even higher in those with valvular atrial fibrillation.<sup id="cite_ref-AFIB_36-0" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stroke#cite_note-AFIB-36" title="">[37]</a></sup> Depending on the stroke risk, anticoagulation with medications such as <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coumarins" class="mw-redirect" title="Coumarins">coumarins</a> or aspirin is warranted for stroke prevention.<sup id="cite_ref-AFib-guidelines_37-0" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stroke#cite_note-AFib-guidelines-37" title="">[38]</a></sup></p> <dl><dt>Blood lipids</dt></dl> <p>High cholesterol levels have been inconsistently associated with (ischemic) stroke.<sup id="cite_ref-NEJM1989_38-0" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stroke#cite_note-NEJM1989-38" title="">[39]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-pmid8551820_29-1" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stroke#cite_note-pmid8551820-29" title="">[30]</a></sup> <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Statins" class="mw-redirect" title="Statins">Statins</a> have been shown to reduce the risk of stroke by about 15%.<sup id="cite_ref-Statins2008_39-0" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stroke#cite_note-Statins2008-39" title="">[40]</a></sup> Since earlier meta-analyses of other <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lipid-lowering_drugs" class="mw-redirect" title="Lipid-lowering drugs">lipid-lowering drugs</a> did not show a decreased risk,<sup id="cite_ref-pmid7802520_40-0" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stroke#cite_note-pmid7802520-40" title="">[41]</a></sup> statins might exert there effect through mechanisms other than their lipid-lowering effects.<sup id="cite_ref-Statins2008_39-1" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stroke#cite_note-Statins2008-39" title="">[40]</a></sup></p> <dl><dt>Diabetes mellitus</dt></dl> <p>Patients with diabetes mellitus are 2 to 3 times more likely to develop stroke, and they commonly have hypertension and hyperlipidemia. Intensive disease control has been shown to reduce microvascular complications such as nephropathy and retinopathy but not macrovascular complications such as stroke.<sup id="cite_ref-UKPDS_41-0" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stroke#cite_note-UKPDS-41" title="">[42]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-ProACTIVE_42-0" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stroke#cite_note-ProACTIVE-42" title="">[43]</a></sup></p> <dl><dt>Anticoagulation drugs</dt></dl> <p>Aspirin or other antiplatelet drugs are highly effective in secondary prevention after a stroke or transient ischemic attack. Low doses of aspirin (for example 75-150 mg) are as effective as high doses but have fewer side-effects; the lowest effective dose remains unknown.<sup id="cite_ref-pmid10371234_43-0" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stroke#cite_note-pmid10371234-43" title="">[44]</a></sup> <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Thienopyridine&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Thienopyridine (page does not exist)">Thienopyridines</a> (<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clopidogrel" title="Clopidogrel">clopidogrel</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ticlopidine" title="Ticlopidine">ticlopidine</a>) are modestly more effective than aspirin and have a decreased risk of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gastrointestinal_bleeding" title="Gastrointestinal bleeding">gastrointestinal bleeding</a>, but they are more expensive.<sup id="cite_ref-CochraneThienopyridines_44-0" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stroke#cite_note-CochraneThienopyridines-44" title="">[45]</a></sup> Their exact role remains controversial. Ticlopidine has more <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Skin_rash" class="mw-redirect" title="Skin rash">skin rash</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diarrhea" title="Diarrhea">diarrhea</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neutropenia" title="Neutropenia">neutropenia</a> and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thrombotic_thrombocytopenic_purpura" title="Thrombotic thrombocytopenic purpura">thrombotic thrombocytopenic purpura</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-CochraneThienopyridines_44-1" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stroke#cite_note-CochraneThienopyridines-44" title="">[45]</a></sup> <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dipyridamole" title="Dipyridamole">Dipyridamole</a> can be added to aspirin therapy to provide a small additional benefit, even though headache is a common side-effect.<sup id="cite_ref-ESPRIT_45-0" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stroke#cite_note-ESPRIT-45" title="">[46]</a></sup> Low-dose aspirin is also effective for stroke prevention after sustaining a myocardial infarction.<sup id="cite_ref-BMJ2002_15-1" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stroke#cite_note-BMJ2002-15" title="">[16]</a></sup> <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oral_anticoagulants" class="mw-redirect" title="Oral anticoagulants">Oral anticoagulants</a> are not advised for stroke prevention —any benefit is offset by bleeding risk.<sup id="cite_ref-pmid17239798_46-0" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stroke#cite_note-pmid17239798-46" title="">[47]</a></sup></p> <p>In primary prevention however, antiplatelet drugs did not reduce the risk of ischemic stroke while increasing the risk of major bleeding.<sup id="cite_ref-aspirin_47-0" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stroke#cite_note-aspirin-47" title="">[48]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-aspirin-meta_48-0" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stroke#cite_note-aspirin-meta-48" title="">[49]</a></sup> Further studies are needed to investigate a possible protective effect of aspirin against ischemic stroke in women.<sup id="cite_ref-aspirin-women_49-0" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stroke#cite_note-aspirin-women-49" title="">[50]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-gender_50-0" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stroke#cite_note-gender-50" title="">[51]</a></sup></p> <dl><dt>Surgery</dt></dl> <p>Surgical procedures such as carotid endarterectomy or carotid <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Angioplasty" title="Angioplasty">angioplasty</a> can be used to remove significant atherosclerotic narrowing (stenosis) of the carotid artery, which supplies blood to the brain. There is a large body of evidence supporting this procedure in selected cases.<sup id="cite_ref-endart-review_25-1" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stroke#cite_note-endart-review-25" title="">[26]</a></sup> Endarterectomy for a significant stenosis has been shown to be useful in the secondary prevention after a previous symptomatic stroke.<sup id="cite_ref-pmid12531577_51-0" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stroke#cite_note-pmid12531577-51" title="">[52]</a></sup> Carotid artery stenting has not been shown to be equally useful.<sup id="cite_ref-endarterectomy-meta_52-0" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stroke#cite_note-endarterectomy-meta-52" title="">[53]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-endarterectomy-cochrana_53-0" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stroke#cite_note-endarterectomy-cochrana-53" title="">[54]</a></sup> Patients are selected for surgery based on age, gender, degree of stenosis, time since symptoms and patients' preferences.<sup id="cite_ref-endart-review_25-2" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stroke#cite_note-endart-review-25" title="">[26]</a></sup> Surgery is most efficient when not delayed too long —the risk of recurrent stroke in a patient who has a 50% or greater stenosis is up to 20% after 5 years, but endarterectomy reduces this risk to around 5%. The number of procedures needed to cure one patient was 5 for early surgery (within two weeks after the initial stroke), but 125 if delayed longer than 12 weeks.<sup id="cite_ref-pmid15043958_54-0" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stroke#cite_note-pmid15043958-54" title="">[55]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-pmid16087900_55-0" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stroke#cite_note-pmid16087900-55" title="">[56]</a></sup></p> <p>Screening for carotid artery narrowing has not been shown to be a useful <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Screening_%28medicine%29" title="Screening (medicine)">screening</a> test in the general population.<sup id="cite_ref-USPSTF-carotidUS_56-0" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stroke#cite_note-USPSTF-carotidUS-56" title="">[57]</a></sup> Studies of surgical intervention for carotid artery stenosis without symptoms have shown only a small decrease in the risk of stroke.<sup id="cite_ref-pmid15135594_57-0" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stroke#cite_note-pmid15135594-57" title="">[58]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-pmid16235289_58-0" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stroke#cite_note-pmid16235289-58" title="">[59]</a></sup> To be beneficial, the complication rate of the surgery should be kept > 4%. Even then, for 100 surgeries, 5 patients will benefit by avoiding stroke, 3 will develop stroke despite surgery, 3 will develop stroke or die due to the surgery itself, and 89 will remain stroke-free but would also have done so without intervention.<sup id="cite_ref-endart-review_25-3" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stroke#cite_note-endart-review-25" title="">[26]</a></sup></p> <dl><dt>Nutritional and metabolic interventions</dt></dl> <p>Nutrition, specifically the Mediterranean-style diet, has the potential of more than halving stroke risk.<sup id="cite_ref-strokenutrition_59-0" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stroke#cite_note-strokenutrition-59" title="">[60]</a></sup></p> <p>With regards to lowering <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homocysteine" title="Homocysteine">homocysteine</a>, a <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meta-analysis" title="Meta-analysis">meta-analysis</a> of previous trials has concluded that lowering homocysteine with <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Folic_acid" title="Folic acid">folic acid</a> and other supplements may reduce stroke risk.<sup id="cite_ref-pmid17544768_60-0" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stroke#cite_note-pmid17544768-60" title="">[61]</a></sup> However, the two largest <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Randomized_controlled_trial" title="Randomized controlled trial">randomized controlled trials</a> included in the meta-analysis had conflicting results. One reported positve results;<sup id="cite_ref-pmid16531613_61-0" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stroke#cite_note-pmid16531613-61" title="">[62]</a></sup> whereas the other was negative.<sup id="cite_ref-pmid14762035_62-0" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stroke#cite_note-pmid14762035-62" title="">[63]</a></sup></p> <p><a name="Treatment" id="Treatment"></a></p> <h2><span class="editsection">[<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Stroke&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Treatment">edit</a>]</span> <span class="mw-headline">Treatment</span></h2> <p><a name="Early_assessment" id="Early_assessment"></a></p> <h3><span class="editsection">[<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Stroke&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Early assessment">edit</a>]</span> <span class="mw-headline">Early assessment</span></h3> <p>Early recognition of the signs of stroke is generally regarded as important. Only detailed <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physical_examination" title="Physical examination">physical examination</a> and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medical_imaging" title="Medical imaging">medical imaging</a> provide information on the presence, type, and extent of stroke, and hence hospital attendance — even if the symptoms were brief — is advised.<sup class="noprint Template-Fact"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources since June 2007" style="white-space: nowrap;">[<i><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a></i>]</span></sup></p> <p>Studies show that patients treated in hospitals with a dedicated Stroke Team or Stroke Unit and a specialized care program for stroke patients have improved odds of recovery.</p> <p><a name="Ischemic_stroke_2" id="Ischemic_stroke_2"></a></p> <h3><span class="editsection">[<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Stroke&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Ischemic stroke">edit</a>]</span> <span class="mw-headline">Ischemic stroke</span></h3> <p>An ischemic stroke is due to a <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thrombus" title="Thrombus">thrombus</a> (blood clot) occluding a cerebral artery, a patient is given antiplatelet medication (aspirin, clopidogrel, dipyridamole), or <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anticoagulant" title="Anticoagulant">anticoagulant</a> medication (<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Warfarin" title="Warfarin">warfarin</a>), dependent on the cause, when this type of stroke has been found. Hemorrhagic stroke must be ruled out with medical imaging, since this therapy would be harmful to patients with that type of stroke.</p> <p>Whether thrombolysis is performed or not, the following investigations are required:</p> <ul><li>Stroke symptoms are documented, often using scoring systems such as the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=National_Institutes_of_Health_Stroke_Scale&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="National Institutes of Health Stroke Scale (page does not exist)">National Institutes of Health Stroke Scale</a>, the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cincinnati_Stroke_Scale" title="Cincinnati Stroke Scale">Cincinnati Stroke Scale</a>, and the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Los_Angeles_Prehospital_Stroke_Screen&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Los Angeles Prehospital Stroke Screen (page does not exist)">Los Angeles Prehospital Stroke Screen</a>. The Cincinnati Stroke Scale is used by <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emergency_medical_technician" title="Emergency medical technician">emergency medical technicians</a> (EMTs) to determine whether a patient needs transport to a stroke center.</li><li>A <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computed_axial_tomography" class="mw-redirect" title="Computed axial tomography">CT scan</a> is performed to rule out hemorrhagic stroke</li><li>Blood tests, such as a <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Full_blood_count" class="mw-redirect" title="Full blood count">full blood count</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coagulation" title="Coagulation">coagulation</a> studies (<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prothrombin_time" title="Prothrombin time">PT/INR</a> and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Partial_thromboplastin_time" title="Partial thromboplastin time">APTT</a>), and tests of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrolyte" title="Electrolyte">electrolytes</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Renal_function" title="Renal function">renal function</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liver_function_tests" title="Liver function tests">liver function tests</a> and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glucose" title="Glucose">glucose</a> levels are carried out.</li></ul> <p>Other immediate strategies to protect the brain during stroke include ensuring that <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blood_sugar" title="Blood sugar">blood sugar</a> is as normal as possible (such as commencement of an <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Insulin_sliding_scale&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Insulin sliding scale (page does not exist)">insulin sliding scale</a> in known <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diabetes" class="mw-redirect" title="Diabetes">diabetics</a>), and that the stroke patient is receiving adequate <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oxygen" title="Oxygen">oxygen</a> and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intravenous_fluid" class="mw-redirect" title="Intravenous fluid">intravenous fluids</a>. The patient may be positioned so that his or her head is flat on the stretcher, rather than sitting up, since studies have shown that this increases blood flow to the brain. Additional therapies for ischemic stroke include aspirin (50 to 325 mg daily), clopidogrel (75 mg daily), and combined aspirin and dipyridamole extended release (25/200 mg twice daily).</p> <p>It is common for the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blood_pressure" title="Blood pressure">blood pressure</a> to be <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arterial_hypertension" class="mw-redirect" title="Arterial hypertension">elevated</a> immediately following a stroke. Studies indicated that while high blood pressure causes stroke, it is actually beneficial in the emergency period to allow better blood flow to the brain.</p> <p>If studies show carotid stenosis, and the patient has residual function in the affected side, carotid endarterectomy (surgical removal of the stenosis) may decrease the risk of recurrence if performed rapidly after stroke.</p> <p>If the stroke has been the result of cardiac arrhythmia with cardiogenic emboli, treatment of the arrhythmia and anticoagulation with warfarin or high-dose aspirin may decrease the risk of recurrence. Stroke prevention treatment for a common arrhythmia, atrial fibrillation, is determined according to the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CHADS_Score" title="CHADS Score">CHADS/CHADS2 system</a>.</p> <p><a name="Thrombolysis" id="Thrombolysis"></a></p> <h4><span class="editsection">[<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Stroke&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Thrombolysis">edit</a>]</span> <span class="mw-headline">Thrombolysis</span></h4> <p>In increasing numbers of primary stroke centers, pharmacologic thrombolysis ("clot busting") with the drug <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tissue_plasminogen_activator" title="Tissue plasminogen activator">tissue plasminogen activator</a>, <b>tPA</b>, is used to dissolve the clot and unblock the artery. However, the use of tPA in acute stroke is controversial. On one hand, it is endorsed by the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Heart_Association" title="American Heart Association">American Heart Association</a> and the American Academy of Neurology as the recommended treatment for acute stroke within three hours of onset of symptoms as long as there are not other contraindications (such as abnormal lab values, high blood pressure, or recent surgery). This position for tPA is based upon the findings of two studies by one group of investigators<sup id="cite_ref-63" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stroke#cite_note-63" title="">[64]</a></sup> which showed that tPA improves the chances for a good neurological outcome. When administered within the first three hours, 39% of all patients who were treated with tPA had a good outcome at three months, only 26% of placebo controlled patients had a good functional outcome. However, in the NINDS trial 6.4% of patients with large strokes developed substantial brain hemorrhage as a complication from being given tPA. tPA is often misconstrued as a "magic bullet" and it is important for patients to be aware that despite the study that supports its use, some of the data were flawed and the safety and efficacy of tPA is controversial. A recent study found the mortality to be higher among patients receiving tPA versus those who did not.<sup id="cite_ref-Dubinsky06_64-0" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stroke#cite_note-Dubinsky06-64" title="">[65]</a></sup> Additionally, it is the position of the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=American_Academy_of_Emergency_Medicine&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="American Academy of Emergency Medicine (page does not exist)">American Academy of Emergency Medicine</a> that objective evidence regarding the efficacy, safety, and applicability of tPA for acute ischemic stroke is insufficient to warrant its classification as <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Standard_of_care" title="Standard of care">standard of care</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-65" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stroke#cite_note-65" title="">[66]</a></sup> Until additional evidence clarifies such controversies, physicians are advised to use their discretion when considering its use. Given the cited absence of definitive evidence, AAEM believes it is inappropriate to claim that either use or non-use of intravenous thrombolytic therapy constitutes a standard of care issue in the treatment of stroke.</p> <p><a name="Mechanical_thrombectomy" id="Mechanical_thrombectomy"></a></p> <h4><span class="editsection">[<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Stroke&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Mechanical thrombectomy">edit</a>]</span> <span class="mw-headline">Mechanical thrombectomy</span></h4> <div class="thumb tright"> <div class="thumbinner" style="width: 152px;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Merci_L5.jpg" class="image" title="Merci Retriever L5."><img alt="Merci Retriever L5." src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/a8/Merci_L5.jpg/150px-Merci_L5.jpg" class="thumbimage" width="150" border="0" height="206" /></a> <div class="thumbcaption"> <div class="magnify"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Merci_L5.jpg" class="internal" title="Enlarge"><img src="http://en.wikipedia.org/skins-1.5/common/images/magnify-clip.png" alt="" width="15" height="11" /></a></div> Merci Retriever L5.</div> </div> </div> <p>Another intervention for acute ischemic stroke is removal of the offending thrombus directly. This is accomplished by inserting a catheter into the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Femoral_artery" title="Femoral artery">femoral artery</a>, directing it into the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cerebral_circulation" title="Cerebral circulation">cerebral circulation</a>, and deploying a corkscrew-like device to ensnare the clot, which is then withdrawn from the body. In August 2004, based on data from the MERCI (Mechanical Embolus Removal in <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cerebral_ischemia" class="mw-redirect" title="Cerebral ischemia">Cerebral Ischemia</a>) Trial, the FDA cleared several of these devices, called the Merci X5 and X6 Retrievers.<sup id="cite_ref-66" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stroke#cite_note-66" title="">[67]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FDA2004-MerciRetriever_67-0" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stroke#cite_note-FDA2004-MerciRetriever-67" title="">[68]</a></sup> The newer generation Merci L5 Retriever was additionally used in the Multi MERCI trial.<sup id="cite_ref-68" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stroke#cite_note-68" title="">[69]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-69" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stroke#cite_note-69" title="">[70]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-70" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stroke#cite_note-70" title="">[71]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-71" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stroke#cite_note-71" title="">[72]</a></sup> Both the MERCI and Multi MERCI trials required the first pass with the Merci Retriever to be initiated within 8 hours of onset of symptoms.</p> <p><a name="Embolic_stroke" id="Embolic_stroke"></a></p> <h3><span class="editsection">[<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Stroke&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Embolic stroke">edit</a>]</span> <span class="mw-headline">Embolic stroke</span></h3> <p>Anticoagulation can prevent recurrent stroke. Among patients with nonvalvular atrial fibrillation, anticoagulation can reduce stroke by 60% while antiplatelet agents can reduce stroke by 20%.<sup id="cite_ref-pmid17577005_72-0" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stroke#cite_note-pmid17577005-72" title="">[73]</a></sup>. However, a recent meta-analysis suggests harm from anti-coagulation started early after an embolic stroke.<sup id="cite_ref-pmid17204681_73-0" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stroke#cite_note-pmid17204681-73" title="">[74]</a></sup></p> <p><a name="Hemorrhagic_stroke_2" id="Hemorrhagic_stroke_2"></a></p> <h3><span class="editsection">[<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Stroke&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Hemorrhagic stroke">edit</a>]</span> <span class="mw-headline">Hemorrhagic stroke</span></h3> <p>Patients with bleeding into (<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intracerebral_hemorrhage" class="mw-redirect" title="Intracerebral hemorrhage">intracerebral hemorrhage</a>) or around the brain (subarachnoid hemorrhage), require <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neurosurgery" title="Neurosurgery">neurosurgical</a> evaluation to detect and treat the cause of the bleeding. Anticoagulants and antithrombotics, key in treating ischemic stroke, can make bleeding worse and cannot be used in intracerebral hemorrhage. Patients are monitored and their blood pressure, blood sugar, and oxygenation are kept at optimum levels.</p> <p><a name="Care_and_rehabilitation" id="Care_and_rehabilitation"></a></p> <h3><span class="editsection">[<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Stroke&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Care and rehabilitation">edit</a>]</span> <span class="mw-headline">Care and rehabilitation</span></h3> <p><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stroke_rehabilitation" class="mw-redirect" title="Stroke rehabilitation">Stroke rehabilitation</a> is the process by which patients with disabling strokes undergo treatment to help them return to normal life as much as possible by regaining and relearning the skills of everyday living. It also aims to help the survivor understand and adapt to difficulties, prevent secondary complications and educate family members to play a supporting role.</p> <p>A rehabilitation team is usually multidisciplinary as it involves staff with different skills working together to help the patient. These include nursing staff, physiotherapy, occupational therapy, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Speech_and_language_therapy" class="mw-redirect" title="Speech and language therapy">speech and language therapy</a>, and usually a <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physician" title="Physician">physician</a> trained in <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rehabilitation_medicine" class="mw-redirect" title="Rehabilitation medicine">rehabilitation medicine</a>. Some teams may also include <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychologists" class="mw-redirect" title="Psychologists">psychologists</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_work" title="Social work">social workers</a>, and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pharmacist" title="Pharmacist">pharmacists</a> since at least one third of the patients manifest <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Post_stroke_depression" title="Post stroke depression">post stroke depression</a>. Validated instruments such as the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Barthel_scale" title="Barthel scale">Barthel scale</a> may be used to assess the likelihood of a stroke patient being able to manage at home with or without support subsequent to discharge from hospital.</p> <p>Good <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nursing_care" title="Nursing care">nursing care</a> is fundamental in maintaining <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Skin" title="Skin">skin care</a>, feeding, hydration, positioning, and monitoring <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vital_signs" title="Vital signs">vital signs</a> such as temperature, pulse, and blood pressure. Stroke rehabilitation begins almost immediately.</p> <p>For most stroke patients, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physical_therapy" class="mw-redirect" title="Physical therapy">physical therapy</a> (PT) and occupational therapy (OT) are the cornerstones of the rehabilitation process. Often, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Assistive_technology" title="Assistive technology">assistive technology</a> such as a <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wheelchair" title="Wheelchair">wheelchair</a>, walkers, canes, and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orthosis" title="Orthosis">orthosis</a> may be beneficial. PT and OT have overlapping areas of working but their main attention fields are; PT involves re-learning functions as transferring, walking and other gross motor functions. OT focusses on exercises and training to help relearn everyday activities known as the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Activities_of_daily_living" title="Activities of daily living">Activities of daily living</a> (ADLs) such as eating, drinking, dressing, bathing, cooking, reading and writing, and toileting. <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Speech_and_language_therapy" class="mw-redirect" title="Speech and language therapy">Speech and language therapy</a> is appropriate for patients with problems understanding speech or written words, problems forming speech and problems with eating (swallowing).</p> <p>Patients may have particular problems, such as complete or partial inability to swallow, which can cause swallowed material to pass into the lungs and cause <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aspiration_pneumonia" title="Aspiration pneumonia">aspiration pneumonia</a>. The condition may improve with time, but in the interim, a <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nasogastric_intubation" title="Nasogastric intubation">nasogastric tube</a> may be inserted, enabling liquid food to be given directly into the stomach. If swallowing is still unsafe after a week, then a <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Percutaneous_endoscopic_gastrostomy" title="Percutaneous endoscopic gastrostomy">percutaneous endoscopic gastrostomy</a> (PEG) tube is passed and this can remain indefinitely.</p> <p>Stroke rehabilitation should be started as immediately as possible and can last anywhere from a few days to over a year. Most return of function is seen in the first few days and weeks, and then improvement falls off with the "window" considered officially by <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/U.S._state" title="U.S. state">U.S. state</a> rehabilitation units and others to be closed after six months, with little chance of further improvement. However, patients have been known to continue to improve for years, regaining and strengthening abilities like writing, walking, running, and talking. Daily rehabilitation exercises should continue to be part of the stroke patient's routine. Complete recovery is unusual but not impossible and most patients will improve to some extent : a correct diet and exercise are known to help the brain to self-recover.</p> <p><a name="Prognosis" id="Prognosis"></a></p> <h2><span class="editsection">[<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Stroke&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Prognosis">edit</a>]</span> <span class="mw-headline">Prognosis</span></h2> <p>Disability affects 75% of stroke survivors enough to decrease their employability.<sup id="cite_ref-Coffey2000_74-0" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stroke#cite_note-Coffey2000-74" title="">[75]</a></sup> Stroke can affect patients physically, mentally, emotionally, or a combination of the three. The results of stroke vary widely depending on size and location of the lesion.<sup id="cite_ref-Stanford2005_75-0" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stroke#cite_note-Stanford2005-75" title="">[76]</a></sup> Dysfunctions correspond to areas in the brain that have been damaged.</p> <p>Some of the physical disabilities that can result from stroke include paralysis, numbness, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pressure_sore" class="mw-redirect" title="Pressure sore">pressure sores</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pneumonia" title="Pneumonia">pneumonia</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Incontinence" title="Incontinence">incontinence</a>, apraxia (inability to perform learned movements), difficulties carrying out daily activities, appetite loss, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Speech_loss&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Speech loss (page does not exist)">speech loss</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vision_loss" title="Vision loss">vision loss</a>, and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pain" title="Pain">pain</a>. If the stroke is severe enough, or in a certain location such as parts of the brainstem, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coma" title="Coma">coma</a> or death can result.</p> <p>Emotional problems resulting from stroke can result from direct damage to emotional centers in the brain or from frustration and difficulty adapting to new limitations. Post-stroke emotional difficulties include <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anxiety" title="Anxiety">anxiety</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Panic_attack" title="Panic attack">panic attacks</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flat_affect" class="mw-redirect" title="Flat affect">flat affect</a> (failure to express emotions), <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mania" title="Mania">mania</a>, apathy, and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychosis" title="Psychosis">psychosis</a>.</p> <p>30 to 50% of stroke survivors suffer post stroke depression, which is characterized by lethargy, irritability, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sleep_disorder" title="Sleep disorder">sleep disturbances</a>, lowered <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Self-esteem" title="Self-esteem">self esteem</a>, and withdrawal.<sup id="cite_ref-Senelick1994_76-0" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stroke#cite_note-Senelick1994-76" title="">[77]</a></sup> <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clinical_depression" class="mw-redirect" title="Clinical depression">Depression</a> can reduce motivation and worsen outcome, but can be treated with <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antidepressant" title="Antidepressant">antidepressants</a>.</p> <p><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emotional_lability" class="mw-redirect" title="Emotional lability">Emotional lability</a>, another consequence of stroke, causes the patient to switch quickly between emotional highs and lows and to express emotions inappropriately, for instance with an excess of laughing or crying with little or no provocation. While these expressions of emotion usually correspond to the patient's actual emotions, a more severe form of emotional lability causes patients to laugh and cry pathologically, without regard to context or emotion.<sup id="cite_ref-Coffey2000_74-1" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stroke#cite_note-Coffey2000-74" title="">[75]</a></sup> Some patients show the opposite of what they feel, for example crying when they are happy.<sup id="cite_ref-Villarosa1993_77-0" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stroke#cite_note-Villarosa1993-77" title="">[78]</a></sup> Emotional lability occurs in about 20% of stroke patients.</p> <p>Cognitive deficits resulting from stroke include perceptual disorders, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dysphasia" title="Dysphasia">speech problems</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dementia" title="Dementia">dementia</a>, and problems with attention and memory. A stroke sufferer may be unaware of his or her own disabilities, a condition called anosognosia. In a condition called <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hemispatial_neglect" title="Hemispatial neglect">hemispatial neglect</a>, a patient is unable to attend to anything on the side of space opposite to the damaged hemisphere.</p> <p>Up to 10% of all stroke patients develop <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seizure" title="Seizure">seizures</a>, most commonly in the week subsequent to the event; the severity of the stroke increases the likelihood of a seizure.<sup id="cite_ref-Reith1997_78-0" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stroke#cite_note-Reith1997-78" title="">[79]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Burn1997_79-0" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stroke#cite_note-Burn1997-79" title="">[80]</a></sup></p> <p><a name="Epidemiology" id="Epidemiology"></a></p> <h2><span class="editsection">[<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Stroke&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Epidemiology">edit</a>]</span> <span class="mw-headline">Epidemiology</span></h2> <p>Stroke could soon be the most common cause of death worldwide.<sup id="cite_ref-globalburden_lancet1997_80-0" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stroke#cite_note-globalburden_lancet1997-80" title="">[81]</a></sup> Stroke is the third leading cause of death in the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Western_world" title="Western world">Western world</a>, after heart disease and cancer,<sup id="cite_ref-feigin2005_1-1" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stroke#cite_note-feigin2005-1" title="">[2]</a></sup> and causes 10% of deaths worldwide.<sup id="cite_ref-worldhealth2004_app2_81-0" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stroke#cite_note-worldhealth2004_app2-81" title="">[82]</a></sup></p> <p>The <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Incidence_%28epidemiology%29" title="Incidence (epidemiology)">incidence</a> of stroke <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exponential_growth" title="Exponential growth">increases exponentially</a> from 30 years of age, and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Etiology" title="Etiology">etiology</a> varies by age.<sup id="cite_ref-ellekjaer1997_82-0" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stroke#cite_note-ellekjaer1997-82" title="">[83]</a></sup> Advanced age is one of the most significant stroke risk factors. 95% of strokes occur in people age 45 and older, and two-thirds of strokes occur in those over the age of 65.<sup id="cite_ref-Senelick1994_76-1" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stroke#cite_note-Senelick1994-76" title="">[77]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-NINDS1999_7-4" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stroke#cite_note-NINDS1999-7" title="">[8]</a></sup> A person's risk of dying if he or she does have a stroke also increases with age. However, stroke can occur at any age, including in fetuses.</p> <p>Family members may have a genetic tendency for stroke or share a lifestyle that contributes to stroke. Higher levels of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Von_Willebrand_factor" title="Von Willebrand factor">Von Willebrand factor</a> are more common amongst people who have had ischemic stroke for the first time.<sup id="cite_ref-83" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stroke#cite_note-83" title="">[84]</a></sup> The results of this study found that the only significant genetic factor was the person's <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blood_type" title="Blood type">blood type</a>. Having had a stroke in the past greatly increases one's risk of future strokes.</p> <p>Men are 1.25 times more likely to suffer strokes than women,<sup id="cite_ref-NINDS1999_7-5" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stroke#cite_note-NINDS1999-7" title="">[8]</a></sup> yet 60% of deaths from stroke occur in women.<sup id="cite_ref-Villarosa1993_77-1" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stroke#cite_note-Villarosa1993-77" title="">[78]</a></sup> Since women live longer, they are older on average when they have their strokes and thus more often killed (NIMH 2002).<sup id="cite_ref-NINDS1999_7-6" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stroke#cite_note-NINDS1999-7" title="">[8]</a></sup> Some risk factors for stroke apply only to women. Primary among these are pregnancy, childbirth, menopause and the treatment thereof (<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hormone_replacement_therapy" title="Hormone replacement therapy">HRT</a>).</p> <p><a name="History" id="History"></a></p> <h2><span class="editsection">[<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Stroke&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: History">edit</a>]</span> <span class="mw-headline">History</span></h2> <div class="thumb tright"> <div class="thumbinner" style="width: 172px;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Hippocrates.jpg" class="image" title="Hippocrates first described the sudden paralysis that is often associated with stroke."><img alt="Hippocrates first described the sudden paralysis that is often associated with stroke." src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7c/Hippocrates.jpg/170px-Hippocrates.jpg" class="thumbimage" width="170" border="0" height="179" /></a> <div class="thumbcaption"> <div class="magnify"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Hippocrates.jpg" class="internal" title="Enlarge"><img src="http://en.wikipedia.org/skins-1.5/common/images/magnify-clip.png" alt="" width="15" height="11" /></a></div> Hippocrates first described the sudden paralysis that is often associated with stroke.</div> </div> </div> <p><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hippocrates" title="Hippocrates">Hippocrates</a> (460 to <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/370_BC" title="370 BC">370 BC</a>) was first to describe the phenomenon of sudden paralysis. <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apoplexy" title="Apoplexy">Apoplexy</a>, from the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greek_language" title="Greek language">Greek</a> word meaning "struck down with violence,” first appeared in Hippocratic writings to describe this phenomenon.<sup id="cite_ref-Stroke1996-Thompson_84-0" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stroke#cite_note-Stroke1996-Thompson-84" title="">[85]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Merginet2001-Kopito_85-0" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stroke#cite_note-Merginet2001-Kopito-85" title="">[86]</a></sup></p> <p>The word <i>stroke</i> was used as a synonym for apoplectic seizure as early as 1599,<sup id="cite_ref-86" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stroke#cite_note-86" title="">[87]</a></sup> and is a fairly literal translation of the Greek term.</p> <p>In 1658, in his <i>Apoplexia</i>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johann_Jakob_Wepfer" title="Johann Jakob Wepfer">Johann Jacob Wepfer</a> (1620–1695) identified the cause of hemorrhagic stroke when he suggested that people who had died of apoplexy had bleeding in their brains.<sup id="cite_ref-Stroke1996-Thompson_84-1" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stroke#cite_note-Stroke1996-Thompson-84" title="">[85]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-NINDS1999_7-7" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stroke#cite_note-NINDS1999-7" title="">[8]</a></sup> Wepfer also identified the main arteries supplying the brain, the vertebral and carotid arteries, and identified the cause of ischemic stroke when he suggested that apoplexy might be caused by a blockage to those vessels.<sup id="cite_ref-NINDS1999_7-8" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stroke#cite_note-NINDS1999-7" title="">[8]</a></sup></p>Administratorhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/08457535216173436628noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-5064508587627806524.post-30622887559747120492008-06-27T15:52:00.000-04:002008-06-27T16:00:12.287-04:00The North Pole<p>The <b>North Pole</b>, also known as the <b>Geographic North Pole</b> or <b>Terrestrial North Pole</b>, is, subject to the caveats explained below, defined as the point in the northern hemisphere where the Earth's axis of rotation meets the Earth's surface. It should not be confused with the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/North_Magnetic_Pole" title="North Magnetic Pole">North Magnetic Pole</a>.</p> <p>The North Pole is the northernmost point on Earth, lying diametrically opposite the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/South_Pole" title="South Pole">South Pole</a>. It defines <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Latitude" title="Latitude">latitude</a> 90° North, as well as the direction of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/True_North" class="mw-redirect" title="True North">True North</a>. At the North Pole all directions point south.</p> <p>While the South Pole lies on a continental <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antarctica" title="Antarctica">land mass</a>, the North Pole is located in the middle of the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arctic_Ocean" title="Arctic Ocean">Arctic Ocean</a>, amidst waters that are almost permanently covered with constantly shifting sea ice. This makes it impossible to construct a permanent station at the North Pole (unlike the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/South_Pole" title="South Pole">South Pole</a>). However, the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soviet_Union" title="Soviet Union">Soviet Union</a>, and later <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russia" title="Russia">Russia</a>, have constructed a number of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soviet_and_Russian_manned_drifting_ice_stations" title="Soviet and Russian manned drifting ice stations">manned drifting stations</a>, some of which have passed over or very close to the Pole. Recently, scientists have predicted that the North Pole may become seasonally ice-free by 2050 due to <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arctic_shrinkage" title="Arctic shrinkage">Arctic shrinkage</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-0" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/North_pole#cite_note-0" title="">[1]</a></sup> More pessimistic predictions claim that the Arctic ice-cap may disappear in mid 2008.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/North_pole#cite_note-1" title="">[2]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/North_pole#cite_note-2" title="">[3]</a></sup></p> <p>The sea depth at the North Pole has been measured at 4,261 metres (13,980 ft).<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/North_pole#cite_note-3" title="">[4]</a></sup> The nearest land is usually said to be <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kaffeklubben_Island" title="Kaffeklubben Island">Kaffeklubben Island</a>, off the northern coast of Greenland about 440 miles (c. 700 km) away, though some perhaps non-permanent gravel banks lie slightly further north. The north pole is often credited as having snow but it is factually snowless.</p><p>The Earth's axis of rotation – and hence the position of the North Pole – was commonly believed to be fixed (relative to the surface of the Earth) until, in the 18th century, the mathematician <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leonhard_Euler" title="Leonhard Euler">Leonhard Euler</a> predicted that the axis might "wobble" slightly. Around the beginning of the 20th century astronomers noticed a small apparent "variation of latitude", as determined for a fixed point on Earth from the observation of stars. Part of this variation could be attributed to a wandering of the Pole across the Earth's surface, by a range of a few meters. The wandering has several periodic components and an irregular component. The component with a period of about 435 days is identified with the 8 month wandering predicted by Euler and is now called the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chandler_wobble" title="Chandler wobble">Chandler wobble</a> after its discoverer. This "wobble" means that a (fixed) definition of the Pole based on the axis of rotation is not useful when metre-scale precision is required.</p> <p>It is desirable to tie the system of Earth coordinates (<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Latitude" title="Latitude">latitude</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Longitude" title="Longitude">longitude</a>, and elevations or <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orography" title="Orography">orography</a>) to fixed landforms. Of course, given <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Continental_drift" title="Continental drift">continental drift</a> and the rising and falling of land due to <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Volcano" title="Volcano">volcanoes</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Erosion" title="Erosion">erosion</a> and so on, there is no system in which all geographic features are fixed. Yet the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Earth_Rotation_and_Reference_Systems_Service" title="International Earth Rotation and Reference Systems Service">International Earth Rotation and Reference Systems Service</a> and the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Astronomical_Union" title="International Astronomical Union">International Astronomical Union</a> have defined a framework called the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Terrestrial_Reference_System" title="International Terrestrial Reference System">International Terrestrial Reference System</a>. The North Pole of this system now defines geographic North for precision work, and it does not quite coincide with the rotation axis.</p> <p><a name="Expeditions" id="Expeditions"></a></p> <h2><span class="mw-headline">Expeditions</span></h2> <dl><dd><i>See also: <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polar_exploration" title="Polar exploration">Polar exploration</a> and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_firsts" title="List of firsts">List of firsts</a></i></dd></dl> <p><a name="Pre-1900" id="Pre-1900"></a></p> <h3><span class="mw-headline">Pre-1900</span></h3> <p>As early as the sixteenth century, many eminent people believed that the North Pole was in a sea, and in the nineteenth century it was called the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polynia" class="mw-redirect" title="Polynia">Polynia</a> or circumpolar sea.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/North_pole#cite_note-4" title="">[5]</a></sup> It was therefore hoped that passage could be found through ice floes at favorable times of the year. Several expeditions set out to find the way, generally with whaling ships, already commonly used in the cold northern latitudes.</p> <p>One of the earliest expeditions to set out with the explicit intention of reaching the North Pole was that of British naval officer <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Edward_Parry" title="William Edward Parry">William Edward Parry</a>, who in 1827 reached latitude 82°45′ North. The <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polaris_expedition" title="Polaris expedition">Polaris expedition</a>, an 1871 American attempt on the Pole led by <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Francis_Hall" title="Charles Francis Hall">Charles Francis Hall</a>, ended in disaster.</p> <p>In April 1895 the Norwegian explorers <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fridtjof_Nansen" title="Fridtjof Nansen">Fridtjof Nansen</a> and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fredrik_Hjalmar_Johansen" class="mw-redirect" title="Fredrik Hjalmar Johansen">Fredrik Hjalmar Johansen</a> reached latitude 86°14′ North, skiing after leaving Nansen's ship <i><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fram" title="Fram">Fram</a></i>. In 1897 the Swedish engineer <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Salomon_August_Andr%C3%A9e" title="Salomon August Andrée">Salomon August Andrée</a> with two companions tried to reach the North Pole in the hydrogen balloon <i>Örnen</i> ('Eagle'), but they stranded 300 km north of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kvit%C3%B8ya" title="Kvitøya">Kvitøya</a>, the northeasternmost part of the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Svalbard" title="Svalbard">Svalbard</a> <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archipelago" title="Archipelago">Archipelago</a>, and perished on this lonely island. In 1930 the remains of this expedition were found by the Norwegian <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bratvaag_Expedition" title="Bratvaag Expedition">Bratvaag Expedition</a>.</p> <p><a name="1900.E2.80.931940"></a></p> <h3><span class="mw-headline">1900–1940</span></h3> <p>The American explorer <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frederick_Albert_Cook" class="mw-redirect" title="Frederick Albert Cook">Frederick Albert Cook</a> claimed to have reached the North Pole on April 21, 1908 with two Inuit men, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ahwelah&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Ahwelah (page does not exist)">Ahwelah</a> and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Etukishook&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Etukishook (page does not exist)">Etukishook</a>, but he was unable to produce convincing proof and his claim is not widely accepted.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/North_pole#cite_note-5" title="">[6]</a></sup></p> <p>The conquest of the North Pole was for many years credited to American Navy engineer <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Edwin_Peary" class="mw-redirect" title="Robert Edwin Peary">Robert Edwin Peary</a>, who claimed to have reached the Pole on <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/April_6" title="April 6">April 6</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1909" title="1909">1909</a>, accompanied by American <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Matthew_Henson" title="Matthew Henson">Matthew Henson</a> and four <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inuit" title="Inuit">Inuit</a> men named <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ootah&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Ootah (page does not exist)">Ootah</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Seeglo&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Seeglo (page does not exist)">Seeglo</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Egigingwah&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Egigingwah (page does not exist)">Egigingwah</a>, and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ooqueah&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Ooqueah (page does not exist)">Ooqueah</a>. However, Peary's claim remains controversial. The party that accompanied Peary on the final stage of the journey included no one who was trained in navigation and could independently confirm his own navigational work, which some claim to have been particularly sloppy as he approached the Pole.</p> <p>The distances and speeds that Peary claimed to have achieved once the last support party turned back seem incredible to many people, almost three times that which he had accomplished up to that point. Peary's account of a journey to the Pole and back – the only strategy that might have allowed him to travel at such a speed – is contradicted by Henson's account of tortuous detours to avoid <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pressure_ridge" title="Pressure ridge">pressure ridges</a> and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Open_lead" class="mw-redirect" title="Open lead">open leads</a>.</p> <p>The British explorer <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wally_Herbert" title="Wally Herbert">Wally Herbert</a>, initially a supporter of Peary, researched Peary's records in 1989 and concluded that they must have been falsified and that Peary had not reached the Pole<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/North_pole#cite_note-6" title="">[7]</a></sup>. Support for Peary came again in 2005 when the British explorer <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tom_Avery" title="Tom Avery">Tom Avery</a> and four companions recreated the outward portion of Peary's journey with replica wooden sleds and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canadian_Eskimo_Dog" title="Canadian Eskimo Dog">Canadian Eskimo Dog</a> teams, reaching the North Pole in 36 days, 22 hours – nearly five hours faster than Peary. Avery writes on his web site that "The admiration and respect which I hold for Robert Peary, Matthew Henson and the four Inuit men who ventured North in 1909, has grown enormously since we set out from Cape Columbia. Having now seen for myself how he travelled across the pack ice, I am more convinced than ever that Peary did indeed discover the North Pole."<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/North_pole#cite_note-7" title="">[8]</a></sup> However, the conditions faced by Avery were very different from those facing Peary.</p> <p>The first claimed flight over the Pole was made on <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/May_9" title="May 9">May 9</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1926" title="1926">1926</a> by US naval officer <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_E._Byrd" class="mw-redirect" title="Richard E. Byrd">Richard E. Byrd</a> and pilot <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Floyd_Bennett" title="Floyd Bennett">Floyd Bennett</a> in a <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fokker_tri-motor" class="mw-redirect" title="Fokker tri-motor">Fokker tri-motor</a> aircraft. Although verified at the time by the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/US_Navy" class="mw-redirect" title="US Navy">US Navy</a> and a committee of the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Geographic_Society" title="National Geographic Society">National Geographic Society</a>, this claim has since been disputed.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/North_pole#cite_note-8" title="">[9]</a></sup></p> <p>The first undisputed sighting of the Pole was on <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/May_12" title="May 12">May 12</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1926" title="1926">1926</a> by <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Norway" title="Norway">Norwegian</a> explorer <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roald_Amundsen" title="Roald Amundsen">Roald Amundsen</a> and his <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States" title="United States">American</a> sponsor <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lincoln_Ellsworth" title="Lincoln Ellsworth">Lincoln Ellsworth</a> from the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Airship" title="Airship">airship</a> <i><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Airship_Norge" class="mw-redirect" title="Airship Norge">Norge</a></i>. <i>Norge</i>, though Norwegian owned, was designed and piloted by the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Italy" title="Italy">Italian</a> <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Umberto_Nobile" title="Umberto Nobile">Umberto Nobile</a>. The flight started from <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Svalbard" title="Svalbard">Svalbard</a> and crossed the icecap to <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alaska" title="Alaska">Alaska</a>. Nobile, along with several scientists and crew from the <i>Norge</i>, overflew the Pole a second time on <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/May_24" title="May 24">May 24</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1928" title="1928">1928</a> in the airship <i><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Airship_Italia" title="Airship Italia">Italia</a></i>. The <i>Italia</i> crashed on its return from the Pole, with the loss of half the crew.</p> <p><a name="1940.E2.80.932000"></a></p> <h3><span class="mw-headline">1940–2000</span></h3> <p>In May 1945, an <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RAF" class="mw-redirect" title="RAF">RAF</a> <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Avro_Lancaster" title="Avro Lancaster">Lancaster</a> of the <i>Aries</i> expedition became the first <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Commonwealth_of_Nations" title="Commonwealth of Nations">Commonwealth</a> aircraft to overfly the North Geographic and North Magnetic Poles. The plane was piloted by David Cecil McKinley of the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Royal_Air_Force" title="Royal Air Force">Royal Air Force</a>. It carried an 11-man crew, with Kenneth C. Maclure of the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Royal_Canadian_Air_Force" title="Royal Canadian Air Force">Royal Canadian Air Force</a> in charge of all scientific observations. In 2006, Maclure was honoured with a spot in the Canadian Aviation Hall Of Fame.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/North_pole#cite_note-9" title="">[10]</a></sup></p> <p>Discounting Peary's disputed claim, the first men to set foot at the North Pole were, according to some sources, a Soviet Union party. These are variously described as including Pavel Gordiyenko (or Geordiyenko) and three<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/North_pole#cite_note-10" title="">[11]</a></sup> or five<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/North_pole#cite_note-11" title="">[12]</a></sup> others, or Aleksandr Kuznetsov and 23 others,<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/North_pole#cite_note-12" title="">[13]</a></sup> who landed a plane (or planes) there on <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/April_23" title="April 23">April 23</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1948" title="1948">1948</a>. According to Antarctica.org, three <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Li-2" class="mw-redirect" title="Li-2">Li-2</a> planes landed, carrying a total of seven men.<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/North_pole#cite_note-13" title="">[14]</a></sup></p> <p>On <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/May_3" title="May 3">May 3</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1952" title="1952">1952</a>, U.S. Air Force Lieutenant Colonel <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joseph_O._Fletcher" title="Joseph O. Fletcher">Joseph O. Fletcher</a> and Lieutenant <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_P._Benedict" class="mw-redirect" title="William P. Benedict">William P. Benedict</a>, along with scientist <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albert_P._Crary" title="Albert P. Crary">Albert P. Crary</a>, landed a modified <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/C-47_Skytrain" title="C-47 Skytrain">C-47 Skytrain</a> at the North Pole. Some sources consider this (rather than the Soviet mission) to be the first ever landing at the Pole.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/North_pole#cite_note-14" title="">[15]</a></sup></p> <p>The United States Navy submarine <i><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/USS_Nautilus_%28SSN-571%29" title="USS Nautilus (SSN-571)">USS Nautilus</a></i> (SSN-571) crossed the North Pole on <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/August_3" title="August 3">August 3</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1958" title="1958">1958</a>, and on <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/March_17" title="March 17">March 17</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1959" title="1959">1959</a>, the <i><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/USS_Skate_%28SSN-578%29" title="USS Skate (SSN-578)">USS Skate</a></i> (SSN-578) surfaced at the Pole, becoming the first naval vessel to do so.</p> <p>Setting aside Peary's claim, the first confirmed surface conquest of the North Pole was that of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ralph_Plaisted" title="Ralph Plaisted">Ralph Plaisted</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Walter_Pederson&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Walter Pederson (page does not exist)">Walt Pederson</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Gerald_Pitzl&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Gerald Pitzl (page does not exist)">Gerry Pitzl</a> and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Jean_Luc_Bombardier&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Jean Luc Bombardier (page does not exist)">Jean Luc Bombardier</a>, who traveled over the ice by <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Snowmobile" title="Snowmobile">snowmobile</a> and arrived on <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/April_19" title="April 19">April 19</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1968" title="1968">1968</a>. The <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Air_Force" title="United States Air Force">United States Air Force</a> independently confirmed their position.</p> <p>On <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/April_6" title="April 6">April 6</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1969" title="1969">1969</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wally_Herbert" title="Wally Herbert">Sir Wally Herbert</a> and companions Allan Gill, Roy Koerner and Kenneth Hedges of the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=British_Trans-Arctic_Expedition&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="British Trans-Arctic Expedition (page does not exist)">British Trans-Arctic Expedition</a> became the first men to reach the North Pole on foot (albeit with the aid of dog teams and air drops). They continued on to complete the first surface crossing of the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arctic_Ocean" title="Arctic Ocean">Arctic Ocean</a> – and by its longest axis, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Barrow%2C_Alaska" title="Barrow, Alaska">Barrow, Alaska</a> to <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Svalbard" title="Svalbard">Svalbard</a> – a feat that has never been repeated.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/North_pole#cite_note-15" title="">[16]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-guardianobit_16-0" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/North_pole#cite_note-guardianobit-16" title="">[17]</a></sup> Because of suggestions of Plaisted's use of air transport, some sources classify Herbert's expedition as the first confirmed to reach the North Pole over the ice surface by any means.<sup id="cite_ref-guardianobit_16-1" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/North_pole#cite_note-guardianobit-16" title="">[17]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/North_pole#cite_note-17" title="">[18]</a></sup></p> <p>On <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/August_17" title="August 17">August 17</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1977" title="1977">1977</a>, the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soviet" class="mw-redirect" title="Soviet">Soviet</a> <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuclear_powered_icebreaker" title="Nuclear powered icebreaker">nuclear powered icebreaker</a> <i><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arktika_class_icebreaker" title="Arktika class icebreaker">Arktika</a></i> completed the first surface vessel journey to the North Pole.</p> <p><a name="21st_century"></a></p> <h3><span class="mw-headline">21st century</span></h3> <div class="thumb tright"> <div class="thumbinner" style="width: 277px;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Chralotte_Northpole.jpg" class="image" title="USS Charlotte at the North Pole in 2005"><img alt="USS Charlotte at the North Pole in 2005" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/18/Chralotte_Northpole.jpg/275px-Chralotte_Northpole.jpg" class="thumbimage" width="275" border="0" height="183" /></a> <div class="thumbcaption"> <div class="magnify"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Chralotte_Northpole.jpg" class="internal" title="Enlarge"><img src="http://en.wikipedia.org/skins-1.5/common/images/magnify-clip.png" alt="" width="15" height="11" /></a></div> USS <i>Charlotte</i> at the North Pole in 2005</div> </div> </div> <p>In recent years, journeys to the North Pole by air (landing at a runway prepared on the ice) or by icebreaker have become relatively routine, and are even available to small groups of tourists through adventure holiday companies.</p> <p>In 2005, the United States Navy submarine <i><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/USS_Charlotte_%28SSN-766%29" title="USS Charlotte (SSN-766)">USS Charlotte</a></i> (SSN-766) surfaced through 61 inches (155 cm) of ice at the North Pole and spent 18 hours there.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/North_pole#cite_note-18" title="">[19]</a></sup></p> <p>In April 2007, Dutch <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Performance_art" title="Performance art">performance artist</a> <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Guido_van_der_Werve&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Guido van der Werve (page does not exist)">Guido van der Werve</a> performed a work of art at the North Pole. By standing exactly on the Pole for 24 hours and turning slowly clockwise (the earth is turning counterclockwise), just by following his own shadow, Van der Werve literally did <i>not</i> turn with the world for one day. This performance is called: 'nummer negen [Dutch for Number Nine], the day I didn't turn with the world'. Van der Werve <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Time-lapse" title="Time-lapse">time-lapsed</a> the 24 hours to 9 minutes. <sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/North_pole#cite_note-19" title="">[20]</a></sup></p> <p>In July 2007, British endurance swimmer <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lewis_Gordon_Pugh" title="Lewis Gordon Pugh">Lewis Gordon Pugh</a> completed a 1 km swim at the North Pole. His feat, undertaken to highlight the effects of climate change, took place in clear water that had opened up between the ice floes.<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/North_pole#cite_note-20" title="">[21]</a></sup></p> <p>A 2007 episode of the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BBC" title="BBC">BBC</a> motoring show <i><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Top_Gear_%28current_format%29" title="Top Gear (current format)">Top Gear</a></i>, in which the presenters were described as journeying to the "North Pole", was in fact an expedition to the 1996 position of the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/North_Magnetic_Pole" title="North Magnetic Pole">North <i>Magnetic</i> Pole</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/North_pole#cite_note-21" title="">[22]</a></sup></p> <p><a name="2007_descent_to_North_Pole_seabed"></a></p> <h4><span class="editsection"></span> <span class="mw-headline">2007 descent to North Pole seabed</span></h4> <dl><dd> <div class="noprint relarticle mainarticle"><i>Main article: <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arktika_2007" title="Arktika 2007">Arktika 2007</a></i></div> </dd></dl> <p>On <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/August_2" title="August 2">August 2</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2007" title="2007">2007</a>, a <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russia" title="Russia">Russian</a> expedition made the first ever manned descent to the ocean bottom at the North Pole, to a depth of 4.3 km, as part of a research programme in support of Russia's <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Territorial_claims_in_the_Arctic#2001_Russian_claim" title="Territorial claims in the Arctic">2001 territorial claim</a> to a large swathe of the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arctic_Ocean" title="Arctic Ocean">Arctic Ocean</a>. The descent took place in two <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MIR_%28submersible%29" title="MIR (submersible)">MIR submersibles</a> and was led by <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soviet_Union" title="Soviet Union">Soviet</a> and Russian polar explorer <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arthur_Chilingarov" class="mw-redirect" title="Arthur Chilingarov">Arthur Chilingarov</a>. In a symbolic act, the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russian_flag" class="mw-redirect" title="Russian flag">Russian flag</a> was placed on the seabed at the exact position of the Pole.<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/North_pole#cite_note-22" title="">[23]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/North_pole#cite_note-23" title="">[24]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/North_pole#cite_note-24" title="">[25]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/North_pole#cite_note-25" title="">[26]</a></sup></p> <p>The expedition is the latest in a decades-long series of moves by Russia intended to show that it is the dominant influence in the Arctic.<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/North_pole#cite_note-26" title="">[27]</a></sup> The warming Arctic climate and summer retreat of sea ice there has suddenly turned the attention of countries from China to the United States toward the top of the world, where resources and shipping routes may soon be exploitable.<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/North_pole#cite_note-27" title="">[28]</a></sup></p> <p><a name="Day_and_night" id="Day_and_night"></a></p> <h2><span class="mw-headline">Day and night</span></h2> <dl><dd><i>See also <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Midnight_sun" title="Midnight sun">Midnight sun</a> and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polar_night" title="Polar night">Polar night</a></i></dd></dl> <p>At the North Pole, the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun" title="Sun">Sun</a> is permanently above the horizon during the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Summer" title="Summer">summer</a> months and permanently below the horizon during the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Winter" title="Winter">winter</a> months. <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sunrise" title="Sunrise">Sunrise</a> is just before the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vernal_equinox" class="mw-redirect" title="Vernal equinox">vernal equinox</a> (around March 19); the Sun then takes three months to reach its highest point of about 23½° elevation at the summer <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solstice" title="Solstice">solstice</a> (around June 21), after which time it begins to sink, reaching <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sunset" title="Sunset">sunset</a> just after the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Autumnal_equinox" class="mw-redirect" title="Autumnal equinox">autumnal equinox</a> (around September 24).</p> <p>A <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Civil_twilight" class="mw-redirect" title="Civil twilight">civil twilight</a> period of about two weeks occurs before sunrise and after sunset, and an <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astronomical_twilight" class="mw-redirect" title="Astronomical twilight">astronomical twilight</a> period of about seven weeks occurs before sunrise and after sunset.</p> <p>These effects are caused by a combination of the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earth" title="Earth">Earth's</a> <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Axial_tilt" title="Axial tilt">axial tilt</a> and its revolution around the sun. The direction of the Earth's axial tilt, as well as its angle relative to the plane of the Earth's orbit around the Sun, remain very nearly constant over the course of a year (both change very slowly over long time periods). At northern midsummer the North Pole is facing towards the Sun to its maximum extent. As the year progresses and the Earth moves around the Sun, the North Pole gradually turns away from the Sun until at midwinter it is facing away from the Sun to its maximum extent. A similar sequence is observed at the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/South_Pole" title="South Pole">South Pole</a>, with a six-month time difference.</p> <p><a name="Time" id="Time"></a></p> <h2><span class="editsection">[<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=North_Pole&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Time">edit</a>]</span> <span class="mw-headline">Time</span></h2> <p>In most places on Earth, local time is roughly synchronized to the position of the sun in the sky. Thus, at midday the sun is roughly at its highest. This method fails at the North Pole where the sun is continuously in the sky for six months. There is no permanent human presence at the North Pole, and no particular time zone has been assigned. Polar expeditions may use any time zone that is convenient, such as <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GMT" class="mw-redirect" title="GMT">GMT</a>, or the time zone of the country they departed from.</p> <p><a name="Climate" id="Climate"></a></p> <h2><span class="mw-headline">Climate</span></h2> <div class="thumb tright"> <div class="thumbinner" style="width: 252px;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:2007_Arctic_Sea_Ice.jpg" class="image" title="Arctic shrinkage as of 2007 compared to 2005 and also compared to the 1979-2000 average."><img alt="Arctic shrinkage as of 2007 compared to 2005 and also compared to the 1979-2000 average." src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f0/2007_Arctic_Sea_Ice.jpg/250px-2007_Arctic_Sea_Ice.jpg" class="thumbimage" width="250" border="0" height="209" /></a> <div class="thumbcaption"> <div class="magnify"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:2007_Arctic_Sea_Ice.jpg" class="internal" title="Enlarge"><img src="http://en.wikipedia.org/skins-1.5/common/images/magnify-clip.png" alt="" width="15" height="11" /></a></div> <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arctic_shrinkage" title="Arctic shrinkage">Arctic shrinkage</a> as of 2007 compared to 2005 and also compared to the 1979-2000 average.</div> </div> </div> <p>The North Pole is significantly warmer than the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/South_Pole" title="South Pole">South Pole</a> because it lies at sea level in the middle of an ocean (which acts as a reservoir of heat), rather than at altitude in a continental land mass.</p> <p>Winter (January) temperatures at the North Pole can range from about −43 °C (−75 °F) to −26 °C (−15 °F), perhaps averaging around −34 °C (−30 °F). Summer temperatures (June, July and August) average around the freezing point (0 °C, 32 °F).<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/North_pole#cite_note-28" title="">[29]</a></sup></p> <p>The sea ice at the North Pole is typically around two or three meters thick<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/North_pole#cite_note-29" title="">[30]</a></sup>, though there is considerable variation and occasionally the movement of floes exposes clear water.<sup id="cite_ref-Daly_30-0" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/North_pole#cite_note-Daly-30" title="">[31]</a></sup> Studies have suggested that the average ice thickness has decreased in recent years due to <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Global_warming" title="Global warming">global warming</a>, though this conclusion is disputed by some.<sup id="cite_ref-Daly_30-1" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/North_pole#cite_note-Daly-30" title="">[31]</a></sup> Reports have also predicted that within a few decades the Arctic Ocean will be entirely free of ice in the summer months.<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/North_pole#cite_note-31" title="">[32]</a></sup> This may have significant commercial implications; see "Territorial Claims", below.</p> <p><a name="Flora_and_fauna" id="Flora_and_fauna"></a></p> <h2> <span class="mw-headline">Flora and fauna</span></h2> <p><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polar_bear" title="Polar bear">Polar bears</a> are believed to rarely travel beyond about 82° North due to the scarcity of food, though tracks have been seen in the vicinity of the North Pole, and a 2006 expedition reported sighting a polar bear just one mile (1.6 km) from the Pole.<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/North_pole#cite_note-32" title="">[33]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/North_pole#cite_note-33" title="">[34]</a></sup> The <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ringed_seal" class="mw-redirect" title="Ringed seal">ringed seal</a> has also been seen at the Pole, and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arctic_fox" class="mw-redirect" title="Arctic fox">Arctic foxes</a> have been observed less than 60 km away at 89°40′ N.<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/North_pole#cite_note-34" title="">[35]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/North_pole#cite_note-35" title="">[36]</a></sup></p> <p>Birds seen at or very near the Pole include the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Snow_Bunting" title="Snow Bunting">Snow Bunting</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Northern_Fulmar" title="Northern Fulmar">Northern Fulmar</a> and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Black-legged_Kittiwake" title="Black-legged Kittiwake">Black-legged Kittiwake</a>, though some bird sightings may be distorted by the fact that birds tend to follow ships and expeditions.<sup id="cite_ref-calgary_36-0" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/North_pole#cite_note-calgary-36" title="">[37]</a></sup></p> <p>Fish have been seen in the waters at the North Pole, but these are probably few in number.<sup id="cite_ref-calgary_36-1" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/North_pole#cite_note-calgary-36" title="">[37]</a></sup> A member of the Russian team that descended to the North Pole seabed in August 2007 reported seeing no sea creatures living there.<sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/North_pole#cite_note-37" title="">[38]</a></sup></p> <p><a name="Territorial_claims_to_the_North_Pole_and_Arctic_regions" id="Territorial_claims_to_the_North_Pole_and_Arctic_regions"></a></p> <h2><span class="mw-headline">Territorial claims to the North Pole and Arctic regions</span></h2> <dl><dd> <div class="noprint relarticle mainarticle"><i>Main article: <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Territorial_claims_in_the_Arctic" title="Territorial claims in the Arctic">Territorial claims in the Arctic</a></i></div> </dd></dl> <p>Under international law, no country currently owns the North Pole or the region of the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arctic_Ocean" title="Arctic Ocean">Arctic Ocean</a> surrounding it. The five surrounding Arctic states, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russia" title="Russia">Russia</a>, the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States" title="United States">United States</a> (via <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alaska" title="Alaska">Alaska</a>), <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canada" title="Canada">Canada</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Norway" title="Norway">Norway</a> and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Denmark" title="Denmark">Denmark</a> (via <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greenland" title="Greenland">Greenland</a>), are limited to a 320 kilometre (200-mile) economic zone around their coasts, and the area beyond that is administered by the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Seabed_Authority" title="International Seabed Authority">International Seabed Authority</a>.</p> <p>Upon ratification of the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Nations_Convention_on_the_Law_of_the_Sea" title="United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea">United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea</a>, a country has a ten year period to make claims to extend its <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exclusive_Economic_Zone" title="Exclusive Economic Zone">200 mile zone</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/North_pole#cite_note-38" title="">[39]</a></sup> Norway (ratified the convention in 1996<sup id="cite_ref-ratif_39-0" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/North_pole#cite_note-ratif-39" title="">[40]</a></sup>), Russia (ratified in 1997<sup id="cite_ref-ratif_39-1" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/North_pole#cite_note-ratif-39" title="">[40]</a></sup>), Canada (ratified in 2003<sup id="cite_ref-ratif_39-2" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/North_pole#cite_note-ratif-39" title="">[40]</a></sup>) and Denmark (ratified in 2004<sup id="cite_ref-ratif_39-3" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/North_pole#cite_note-ratif-39" title="">[40]</a></sup>) have all launched projects to base claims that certain Arctic sectors should belong to their territories.<sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/North_pole#cite_note-40" title="">[41]</a></sup></p> <p><a name="Cultural_associations" id="Cultural_associations"></a></p> <h2><span class="mw-headline">Cultural associations</span></h2> <p>In some <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Western_cultures" class="mw-redirect" title="Western cultures">Western cultures</a>, the geographic North Pole is the residence of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Santa_Claus" title="Santa Claus">Santa Claus</a>. <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canada_Post" title="Canada Post">Canada Post</a> has assigned postal code <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/H0H_0H0" class="mw-redirect" title="H0H 0H0">H0H 0H0</a> to the North Pole (referring to Santa's traditional exclamation of "Ho-ho-ho!").<sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/North_pole#cite_note-41" title="">[42]</a></sup></p> <p>This seemingly mundane fact actually reflects an age-old esoteric mythology of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hyperborea" title="Hyperborea">Hyperborea</a> that posits the North Pole, the otherworldly world-axis, as the abode of God and superhuman beings (see <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joscelyn_Godwin" title="Joscelyn Godwin">Joscelyn Godwin</a>, <i>Arktos: The Polar Myth</i>). The popular mythological figure of the pole-dwelling Santa Claus thus functions as an esoteric archetype of spiritual purity and transcendence (<a href="http://livingheritage.org/pole-spirits.htm" class="external autonumber" title="http://livingheritage.org/pole-spirits.htm" rel="nofollow">[2]</a>). As <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henry_Corbin" title="Henry Corbin">Henry Corbin</a> has documented, the North Pole plays a key part in the cultural worldview of esoteric Sufism and Iranian mysticism. "The Orient sought by the mystic, the Orient that cannot be located on our maps, is in the direction of the north, beyond the north" (Corbin, <i>The Man of Light in Iranian Sufism</i>, trans. N. Pearson, 1978). The Pole is also identified with a mysterious mountain in the Arctic Ocean, called Mount Qaf, whose ascent, like Dante's climbing of the Mountain of Purgatory, represents the pilgrim's progress through spiritual states (ibid., p. 44). In Iranian theosophy, the heavenly Pole, the focal point of the spiritual ascent, acts as a magnet to draw beings to its "palaces ablaze with immaterial matter" (ibid., p. 11).</p>Administratorhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/08457535216173436628noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-5064508587627806524.post-11883706852012731662008-06-23T14:32:00.000-04:002008-06-24T09:31:56.167-04:00ETHANOL<p><a href="http://biz.yahoo.com/ap/080623/ethanol_trade_group_lobbying.html?.v=1"><b></b></a><b><a>Ethanol News</a><br /></b></p><p><a href="http://biz.yahoo.com/ap/080623/ethanol_trade_group_lobbying.html?.v=1"><b>Ethanol</b></a>, also called <b>ethyl alcohol</b>, <b>grain alcohol</b>, or <b>drinking alcohol</b>, is a volatile, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flammable" class="mw-redirect" title="Flammable">flammable</a>, colorless liquid. It is best known as the type of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alcohol" title="Alcohol">alcohol</a> found in <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alcoholic_beverages" class="mw-redirect" title="Alcoholic beverages">alcoholic beverages</a> and in thermometers. In common usage, it is often referred to simply as <i>alcohol</i>.</p> <p>Ethanol is also known as <b>EtOH</b>, using the common organic chemistry notation of representing the ethyl group (C<sub>2</sub>H<sub>5</sub>) with <b>Et</b>.</p> <p>Ethanol is a straight-chain alcohol, and its <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chemical_formula" title="Chemical formula">molecular formula</a> is C<sub>2</sub>H<sub>5</sub>OH. An alternative notation is CH<sub>3</sub>-CH<sub>2</sub>-OH, which indicates that the carbon of a methyl group (CH<sub>3</sub>-) is attached to the carbon of a methylene group (-CH<sub>2</sub>-), which is attached to the oxygen of a <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydroxyl" title="Hydroxyl">hydroxyl group (-OH)</a>.</p> <p>Its <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Empirical_formula" title="Empirical formula">empirical formula</a> is <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbon" title="Carbon">C</a><sub>2</sub><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydrogen" title="Hydrogen">H</a><sub>6</sub><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oxygen" title="Oxygen">O</a>, a formula that it shares with <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dimethyl_ether" title="Dimethyl ether">dimethyl ether</a>.</p> <p>Except for the use of fire, the fermentation of sugar into ethanol is very likely the earliest <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Organic_reaction" title="Organic reaction">organic reaction</a> known to humanity,<sup class="noprint Template-Fact"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources since February 2008" style="white-space: nowrap;">[<i><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a></i>]</span></sup> and the intoxicating effects of ethanol consumption have been known since ancient times. In modern times, ethanol intended for industrial use is also produced from byproducts of petroleum refining.</p> <p>Ethanol has widespread use as a solvent of substances intended for human contact or consumption, including scents, flavorings, colorings, and medicines. In chemistry, it is both an essential solvent and a feedstock for the synthesis of other products. It has a long history as a fuel for heat and light and also as a fuel for <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internal_combustion_engine" title="Internal combustion engine">internal combustion engines</a>.</p><h2><span class="mw-headline">History</span></h2> <p>Ethanol has been used by humans since prehistory as the intoxicating ingredient of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alcoholic_beverage" title="Alcoholic beverage">alcoholic beverages</a>. Dried residues on 9000-year-old pottery found in China imply that alcoholic beverages were used even among <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neolithic" title="Neolithic">Neolithic</a> people.<sup id="cite_ref-Roach_0-0" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethanol#cite_note-Roach-0" title="">[1]</a></sup> Its isolation as a relatively pure compound was first achieved by <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alchemy_%28Islam%29" class="mw-redirect" title="Alchemy (Islam)">Muslim chemists</a> who developed the art of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Distillation" title="Distillation">distillation</a> during the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abbasid" title="Abbasid">Abbasid</a> <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caliphate" title="Caliphate">caliphate</a>, the most notable of whom were <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geber" title="Geber">Jabir ibn Hayyan</a> (Geber), <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Al-Kindi" title="Al-Kindi">Al-Kindi</a> (Alkindus), and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Al-Razi" class="mw-redirect" title="Al-Razi">al-Razi</a> (Rhazes, 865–925).</p> <p>Writings attributed to Jabir ibn Hayyan (721–815) mention the flammable vapors of boiled wine. Al-Kindi (801–873) unambiguously described the distillation of wine.<sup id="cite_ref-al-Hassan_1-0" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethanol#cite_note-al-Hassan-1" title="">[2]</a></sup></p> <p>In 1796, Johann Tobias Lowitz obtained pure ethanol by filtering distilled ethanol through <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Activated_carbon" title="Activated carbon">activated charcoal</a>.</p> <p><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antoine_Lavoisier" title="Antoine Lavoisier">Antoine Lavoisier</a> described ethanol as a compound of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen, and in 1808 <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nicolas-Th%C3%A9odore_de_Saussure" title="Nicolas-Théodore de Saussure">Nicolas-Théodore de Saussure</a> determined ethanol's chemical formula.<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethanol#cite_note-2" title="">[3]</a></sup> Fifty years later, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archibald_Scott_Couper" title="Archibald Scott Couper">Archibald Scott Couper</a> published the structural formula of ethanol, which placed ethanol among the first chemical compounds to have their chemical structure determined.<sup id="cite_ref-Couper_3-0" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethanol#cite_note-Couper-3" title="">[4]</a></sup></p> <p>Ethanol was first prepared synthetically in 1826 through the independent efforts of Henry Hennel in Great Britain and S.G. Sérullas in France. In 1828, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michael_Faraday" title="Michael Faraday">Michael Faraday</a> prepared ethanol by <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acid_catalysis" title="Acid catalysis">acid-catalyzed</a> hydration of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethylene" title="Ethylene">ethylene</a>, a process similar to that which is used today for industrial ethanol synthesis.<sup id="cite_ref-Hennell_4-0" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethanol#cite_note-Hennell-4" title="">[5]</a></sup></p> <p>Ethanol was used as lamp fuel in the United States as early as 1840, but a tax levied on industrial alcohol during the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Civil_War" title="American Civil War">Civil War</a> made this use uneconomical. This tax was repealed in 1906,<sup id="cite_ref-siegel_5-0" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethanol#cite_note-siegel-5" title="">[6]</a></sup> and from 1908 onward <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ford_Model_T" title="Ford Model T">Ford Model T</a> automobiles could be adapted to run on ethanol.<sup id="cite_ref-dipardo_6-0" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethanol#cite_note-dipardo-6" title="">[7]</a></sup> With the advent of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prohibition" title="Prohibition">Prohibition</a> in 1920 though, sellers of ethanol fuel were accused of being allied with <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moonshine" title="Moonshine">moonshiners</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-siegel_5-1" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethanol#cite_note-siegel-5" title="">[6]</a></sup> and ethanol fuel again fell into disuse until late in the 20th century.</p> <p><a name="Physical_properties" id="Physical_properties"></a></p> <h2><span class="editsection">[<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ethanol&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Physical properties">edit</a>]</span> <span class="mw-headline">Physical properties</span></h2> <div class="thumb tleft"> <div class="thumbinner" style="width: 352px;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Chemistry%2C_Combustion_of_Ethanol_002.jpg" class="image" title="Ethanol burning in a shallow dish."><img alt="Ethanol burning in a shallow dish." src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Chemistry%2C_Combustion_of_Ethanol_002.jpg/350px-Chemistry%2C_Combustion_of_Ethanol_002.jpg" class="thumbimage" width="350" border="0" height="263" /></a> <div class="thumbcaption"> <div class="magnify"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Chemistry%2C_Combustion_of_Ethanol_002.jpg" class="internal" title="Enlarge"><img src="http://en.wikipedia.org/skins-1.5/common/images/magnify-clip.png" alt="" width="15" height="11" /></a></div> Ethanol burning in a shallow dish.</div> </div> </div> <p>Ethanol is a volatile, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flammable" class="mw-redirect" title="Flammable">flammable</a>, colorless liquid that has a strong characteristic odor. It burns with a smokeless blue flame that is not always visible in normal light.</p> <p>The physical properties of ethanol stem primarily from the presence of its <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydroxyl" title="Hydroxyl">hydroxyl</a> group and the shortness of its carbon chain. Ethanol’s <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydroxyl" title="Hydroxyl">hydroxyl</a> group is able to participate in hydrogen bonding, rendering it more viscous and less volatile than less polar organic compounds of similar molecular weight.</p> <p>Ethanol is a versatile solvent, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Miscible" class="mw-redirect" title="Miscible">miscible</a> with water and with many organic solvents, including <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acetic_acid" title="Acetic acid">acetic acid</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acetone" title="Acetone">acetone</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benzene" title="Benzene">benzene</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbon_tetrachloride" title="Carbon tetrachloride">carbon tetrachloride</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chloroform" title="Chloroform">chloroform</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diethyl_ether" title="Diethyl ether">diethyl ether</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethylene_glycol" title="Ethylene glycol">ethylene glycol</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glycerol" title="Glycerol">glycerol</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nitromethane" title="Nitromethane">nitromethane</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pyridine" title="Pyridine">pyridine</a>, and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Toluene" title="Toluene">toluene</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-crc_7-0" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethanol#cite_note-crc-7" title="">[8]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-merck_8-0" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethanol#cite_note-merck-8" title="">[9]</a></sup> It is also miscible with light aliphatic hydrocarbons, such as <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pentane" title="Pentane">pentane</a> and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hexane" title="Hexane">hexane</a>, and with aliphatic chlorides such as <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1%2C1%2C1-Trichloroethane" title="1,1,1-Trichloroethane">trichloroethane</a> and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tetrachloroethylene" title="Tetrachloroethylene">tetrachloroethylene</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-merck_8-1" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethanol#cite_note-merck-8" title="">[9]</a></sup></p> <p>Ethanol’s miscibility with water contrasts with that of longer-chain alcohols (five or more carbon atoms), whose water miscibility decreases sharply as the number of carbons increases.<sup id="cite_ref-m_and_b_9-0" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethanol#cite_note-m_and_b-9" title="">[10]</a></sup></p> <p>Hydrogen bonding causes pure ethanol to be <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hygroscopic" class="mw-redirect" title="Hygroscopic">hygroscopic</a> to the extent that it readily absorbs water from the air. The polar nature of the hydroxyl group causes ethanol to dissolve many ionic compounds, notably <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sodium_hydroxide" title="Sodium hydroxide">sodium</a> and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Potassium_hydroxide" title="Potassium hydroxide">potassium hydroxides</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magnesium_chloride" title="Magnesium chloride">magnesium chloride</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Calcium_chloride" title="Calcium chloride">calcium chloride</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ammonium_chloride" title="Ammonium chloride">ammonium chloride</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ammonium_bromide" title="Ammonium bromide">ammonium bromide</a>, and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sodium_bromide" title="Sodium bromide">sodium bromide</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-merck_8-2" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethanol#cite_note-merck-8" title="">[9]</a></sup> <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sodium_chloride" title="Sodium chloride">Sodium</a> and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Potassium_chloride" title="Potassium chloride">potassium chlorides</a> are slightly soluble in ethanol.<sup id="cite_ref-merck_8-3" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethanol#cite_note-merck-8" title="">[9]</a></sup> Because the ethanol molecule also has a nonpolar end, it will also dissolve nonpolar substances, including most <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Essential_oil" title="Essential oil">essential oils</a><sup id="cite_ref-merckoils_10-0" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethanol#cite_note-merckoils-10" title="">[11]</a></sup> and numerous flavoring, coloring, and medicinal agents.</p> <p>Two unusual phenomena are associated with mixtures of ethanol and water. Ethanol-water mixtures have less volume than the sum of their individual components. Mixing equal volumes of ethanol and water results in only 1.92 volumes of mixture.<sup id="cite_ref-ChemTech_11-0" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethanol#cite_note-ChemTech-11" title="">[12]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-crc_7-1" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethanol#cite_note-crc-7" title="">[8]</a></sup> The addition of even a few percent of ethanol to water sharply reduces the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Surface_tension" title="Surface tension">surface tension</a> of water. This property partially explains the “<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tears_of_wine" title="Tears of wine">tears of wine</a>” phenomenon. When wine is swirled in a glass, ethanol evaporates quickly from the thin film of wine on the wall of the glass. As the wine’s ethanol content decreases, its surface tension increases and the thin film “beads up” and runs down the glass in channels rather than as a smooth sheet.</p> <p>Mixtures of ethanol and water that contain more than about 50% ethanol are <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flammable" class="mw-redirect" title="Flammable">flammable</a> and easily ignited. <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alcoholic_proof" class="mw-redirect" title="Alcoholic proof">Alcoholic proof</a> is a widely used measure of how much ethanol (i.e., alcohol) such a mixture contains. In the 18th century, proof was determined by adding a liquor (such as <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rum" title="Rum">rum</a>) to gunpowder. If the gunpowder burned, that was considered to be “100% proof” that it was “good” liquor — hence it was called “100 proof.”</p> <p>Ethanol-water solutions that contain less than 50% ethanol may also be flammable if the solution is first heated. Some cooking methods call for <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wine" title="Wine">wine</a> to be added to a hot pan, causing it to flash boil into a vapor, which is then ignited to burn off excess alcohol.</p> <p>Ethanol is slightly more refractive than water, having a <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Refractive_index" title="Refractive index">refractive index</a> of 1.36242 (at <i>λ</i>=589.3 nm and 18.35 °C).<sup id="cite_ref-crc_7-2" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethanol#cite_note-crc-7" title="">[8]</a></sup></p> <p><a name="Chemical_properties" id="Chemical_properties"></a></p> <h2><span class="editsection">[<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ethanol&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Chemical properties">edit</a>]</span> <span class="mw-headline">Chemical properties</span></h2> <div class="thumb tleft"> <div class="thumbinner" style="width: 252px;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Ethanol-3d-stick-structure.svg" class="image" title="Chemical structure of ethanol"><img alt="Chemical structure of ethanol" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/11/Ethanol-3d-stick-structure.svg/250px-Ethanol-3d-stick-structure.svg.png" class="thumbimage" width="250" border="0" height="164" /></a> <div class="thumbcaption"> <div class="magnify"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Ethanol-3d-stick-structure.svg" class="internal" title="Enlarge"><img src="http://en.wikipedia.org/skins-1.5/common/images/magnify-clip.png" alt="" width="15" height="11" /></a></div> Chemical structure of ethanol</div> </div> </div> <dl><dd> <div class="boilerplate seealso"><i>For more details on this topic, see <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alcohol" title="Alcohol">Alcohol</a>.</i></div> </dd></dl> <p>Ethanol is classified as a primary alcohol, meaning that the carbon to which its hydroxyl group is attached has at least two hydrogen atoms attached to it as well.</p> <p>The chemistry of ethanol is largely that of its <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydroxyl" title="Hydroxyl">hydroxyl</a> group.</p> <p><a name="Acid-base_chemistry" id="Acid-base_chemistry"></a></p> <h3><span class="editsection">[<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ethanol&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Acid-base chemistry">edit</a>]</span> <span class="mw-headline">Acid-base chemistry</span></h3> <p>Ethanol's hydroxyl casues the molecule to be slightly basic. It is however,so very slightly basic it is almost neutral, like pure water. The <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PH" title="PH">pH</a> of 100% ethanol is 7.33, compared to 7.00 for pure water. Ethanol can be quantitatively converted to its <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conjugate_base" class="mw-redirect" title="Conjugate base">conjugate base</a>, the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alkoxide" title="Alkoxide">ethoxide</a> ion (CH<sub>3</sub>CH<sub>2</sub>O<sup>−</sup>), by reaction with an <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alkali_metal" title="Alkali metal">alkali metal</a> such as <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sodium" title="Sodium">sodium</a>:<sup id="cite_ref-m_and_b_9-1" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethanol#cite_note-m_and_b-9" title="">[10]</a></sup></p> <dl><dd>2CH<sub>3</sub>CH<sub>2</sub>OH + 2<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sodium" title="Sodium">Na</a> → 2CH<sub>3</sub>CH<sub>2</sub>ONa + <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydrogen" title="Hydrogen">H<sub>2</sub></a></dd></dl> <p>or a very strong base such as sodium hydride:</p> <dl><dd>CH<sub>3</sub>CH<sub>2</sub>OH + NaH → CH<sub>3</sub>CH<sub>2</sub>ONa + <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydrogen" title="Hydrogen">H<sub>2</sub></a></dd></dl> <p><a name="Halogenation" id="Halogenation"></a></p> <h3><span class="editsection">[<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ethanol&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Halogenation">edit</a>]</span> <span class="mw-headline">Halogenation</span></h3> <p>Ethanol reacts with <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydrogen_halide" title="Hydrogen halide">hydrogen halides</a> to produce <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Haloalkane" title="Haloalkane">ethyl halides</a> such as <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethyl_chloride" class="mw-redirect" title="Ethyl chloride">ethyl chloride</a> and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethyl_bromide" class="mw-redirect" title="Ethyl bromide">ethyl bromide</a>:</p> <dl><dd>CH<sub>3</sub>CH<sub>2</sub>OH + <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydrochloric_acid" title="Hydrochloric acid">HCl</a> → <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethyl_chloride" class="mw-redirect" title="Ethyl chloride">CH<sub>3</sub>CH<sub>2</sub>Cl</a> + <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Water" title="Water">H<sub>2</sub>O</a></dd></dl> <p>HCl reaction requires a catalyst such as <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zinc_chloride" title="Zinc chloride">zinc chloride</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-s_and_h_12-0" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethanol#cite_note-s_and_h-12" title="">[13]</a></sup> Hydrogen chloride in the presence of their respective zinc chloride is known as <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lucas_reagent" class="mw-redirect" title="Lucas reagent">Lucas reagent</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-m_and_b_9-2" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethanol#cite_note-m_and_b-9" title="">[10]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-s_and_h_12-1" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethanol#cite_note-s_and_h-12" title="">[13]</a></sup></p> <dl><dd>CH<sub>3</sub>CH<sub>2</sub>OH + <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydrobromic_acid" title="Hydrobromic acid">HBr</a> → <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethyl_bromide" class="mw-redirect" title="Ethyl bromide">CH<sub>3</sub>CH<sub>2</sub>Br</a> + <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Water" title="Water">H<sub>2</sub>O</a></dd></dl> <p>HBr requires <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Refluxing" class="mw-redirect" title="Refluxing">refluxing</a> with a <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sulfuric_acid" title="Sulfuric acid">sulfuric acid</a> catalyst.<sup id="cite_ref-s_and_h_12-2" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethanol#cite_note-s_and_h-12" title="">[13]</a></sup></p> <p>Ethyl halides can also be produced by reacting ethanol with more specialized <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halogenation" title="Halogenation">halogenating agents</a>, such as <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thionyl_chloride" title="Thionyl chloride">thionyl chloride</a> for preparing ethyl chloride, or <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phosphorus_tribromide" title="Phosphorus tribromide">phosphorus tribromide</a> for preparing ethyl bromide.<sup id="cite_ref-m_and_b_9-3" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethanol#cite_note-m_and_b-9" title="">[10]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-s_and_h_12-3" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethanol#cite_note-s_and_h-12" title="">[13]</a></sup></p> <dl><dd>CH<sub>3</sub>CH<sub>2</sub>OH + SOCl<sub>2</sub> → CH<sub>3</sub>CH<sub>2</sub>Cl + SO<sub>2</sub> + HCl</dd></dl> <p><a name="Ester_formation" id="Ester_formation"></a></p> <h3><span class="editsection">[<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ethanol&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Ester formation">edit</a>]</span> <span class="mw-headline">Ester formation</span></h3> <p>Under acid-catalyzed conditions, ethanol reacts with <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carboxylic_acid" title="Carboxylic acid">carboxylic acids</a> to produce ethyl <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ester" title="Ester">esters</a> and water:</p> <dl><dd><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carboxylic_acid" title="Carboxylic acid">RCOOH</a> + HOCH<sub>2</sub>CH<sub>3</sub> → <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ester" title="Ester">RCOOCH<sub>2</sub>CH<sub>3</sub></a> + <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Water" title="Water">H<sub>2</sub>O</a></dd></dl> <p>For this reaction to produce useful yields it is necessary to remove water from the reaction mixture as it is formed.</p> <p>Ethanol can also form esters with inorganic acids. <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diethyl_sulfate" title="Diethyl sulfate">Diethyl sulfate</a> and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Triethyl_phosphate" title="Triethyl phosphate">triethyl phosphate</a>, prepared by reacting ethanol with <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sulfuric_acid" title="Sulfuric acid">sulfuric</a> and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phosphoric_acid" title="Phosphoric acid">phosphoric acid</a> respectively, are both useful ethylating agents in <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Organic_synthesis" title="Organic synthesis">organic synthesis</a>. <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethyl_nitrite" title="Ethyl nitrite">Ethyl nitrite</a>, prepared from the reaction of ethanol with <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sodium_nitrite" title="Sodium nitrite">sodium nitrite</a> and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sulfuric_acid" title="Sulfuric acid">sulfuric acid</a>, was formerly a widely-used <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diuretic" title="Diuretic">diuretic</a>.</p> <p><a name="Dehydration" id="Dehydration"></a></p> <h3><span class="editsection">[<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ethanol&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Dehydration">edit</a>]</span> <span class="mw-headline">Dehydration</span></h3> <p>Strong acid desiccants, such as sulfuric acid, cause ethanol's dehydration to form either <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diethyl_ether" title="Diethyl ether">diethyl ether</a> or <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethylene" title="Ethylene">ethylene</a>:</p> <dl><dd>2 CH<sub>3</sub>CH<sub>2</sub>OH → <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diethyl_ether" title="Diethyl ether">CH<sub>3</sub>CH<sub>2</sub>OCH<sub>2</sub>CH<sub>3</sub></a> + <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Water" title="Water">H<sub>2</sub>O</a></dd></dl> <dl><dd>CH<sub>3</sub>CH<sub>2</sub>OH → <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethylene" title="Ethylene">H<sub>2</sub>C=CH<sub>2</sub></a> + <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Water" title="Water">H<sub>2</sub>O</a></dd></dl> <p>Which product, diethyl ether or ethylene, predominates depends on the precise reaction conditions.</p> <p><a name="Oxidation" id="Oxidation"></a></p> <h3><span class="editsection">[<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ethanol&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Oxidation">edit</a>]</span> <span class="mw-headline">Oxidation</span></h3> <p>Ethanol can be oxidized to <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acetaldehyde" title="Acetaldehyde">acetaldehyde</a>, and further oxidized to <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acetic_acid" title="Acetic acid">acetic acid</a>. In the human body, these oxidation reactions are catalyzed by <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enzyme" title="Enzyme">enzymes</a>. In the laboratory, aqueous solutions of strong oxidizing agents, such as <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chromic_acid" title="Chromic acid">chromic acid</a> or <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Potassium_permanganate" title="Potassium permanganate">potassium permanganate</a>, oxidize ethanol to acetic acid, and it is difficult to stop the reaction at acetaldehyde at high yield. Ethanol can be oxidized to acetaldehyde, without over oxidation to acetic acid, by reacting it with <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pyridinium_chromic_chloride" class="mw-redirect" title="Pyridinium chromic chloride">pyridinium chromic chloride</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-s_and_h_12-4" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethanol#cite_note-s_and_h-12" title="">[13]</a></sup></p> <p>The direct oxidation of ethanol to acetic acid using chromic acid is given below.</p> <dl><dd>C<sub>2</sub>H<sub>5</sub>OH + 2[O] → CH<sub>3</sub>COOH + H<sub>2</sub>O</dd></dl> <p>The oxidation product of ethanol, acetic acid, is spent as nutrient by the human body as <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acetyl_CoA" class="mw-redirect" title="Acetyl CoA">acetyl CoA</a>, where the acetyl group can be spent as energy or used for biosynthesis.</p> <p><a name="Chlorination" id="Chlorination"></a></p> <h3><span class="editsection">[<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ethanol&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Chlorination">edit</a>]</span> <span class="mw-headline">Chlorination</span></h3> <p>When exposed to <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chlorine" title="Chlorine">chlorine</a>, ethanol is both oxidized and its <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alpha_carbon" title="Alpha carbon">alpha carbon</a> chlorinated to form the compound, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chloral" title="Chloral">chloral</a>.</p> <dl><dd>4Cl<sub>2</sub> + C<sub>2</sub>H<sub>5</sub>OH → CCl<sub>3</sub>CHO + 5HCl</dd></dl> <p><a name="Combustion" id="Combustion"></a></p> <h3><span class="editsection">[<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ethanol&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Combustion">edit</a>]</span> <span class="mw-headline">Combustion</span></h3> <p><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Combustion" title="Combustion">Combustion</a> of ethanol forms <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbon_dioxide" title="Carbon dioxide">carbon dioxide</a> and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Water" title="Water">water</a>:</p> <dl><dd>C<sub>2</sub>H<sub>5</sub>OH(g) + 3 O<sub>2</sub>(g) → 2 CO<sub>2</sub>(g) + 3 H<sub>2</sub>O(l) (ΔH<sub>r</sub> = −1409 kJ/mol<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethanol#cite_note-13" title="">[14]</a></sup>)</dd></dl> <p><a name="Production" id="Production"></a></p> <h2><span class="editsection">[<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ethanol&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Production">edit</a>]</span> <span class="mw-headline">Production</span></h2> <div class="thumb tleft"> <div class="thumbinner" style="width: 182px;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Ethanol_Flasche.jpg" class="image" title="94% denatured ethanol sold in a bottle for household use."><img alt="94% denatured ethanol sold in a bottle for household use." src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0f/Ethanol_Flasche.jpg/180px-Ethanol_Flasche.jpg" class="thumbimage" width="180" border="0" height="287" /></a> <div class="thumbcaption"> <div class="magnify"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Ethanol_Flasche.jpg" class="internal" title="Enlarge"><img src="http://en.wikipedia.org/skins-1.5/common/images/magnify-clip.png" alt="" width="15" height="11" /></a></div> 94% denatured ethanol sold in a bottle for household use.</div> </div> </div> <p>Ethanol is produced both as a <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Petrochemical" title="Petrochemical">petrochemical</a>, through the hydration of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethylene" title="Ethylene">ethylene</a>, and biologically, by <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fermentation_%28biochemistry%29" title="Fermentation (biochemistry)">fermenting</a> sugars with <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yeast" title="Yeast">yeast</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Mills-Ecklund_14-0" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethanol#cite_note-Mills-Ecklund-14" title="">[15]</a></sup> Which process is more economical is dependent upon the prevailing prices of petroleum and of grain feed stocks.</p> <p><a name="Ethylene_hydration" id="Ethylene_hydration"></a></p> <h3><span class="editsection">[<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ethanol&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Ethylene hydration">edit</a>]</span> <span class="mw-headline">Ethylene hydration</span></h3> <p>Ethanol for use as industrial feedstock is most often made from <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Petrochemical" title="Petrochemical">petrochemical</a> feed stocks, typically by the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acid" title="Acid">acid</a>-<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Catalysis" title="Catalysis">catalyzed</a> hydration of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethylene" title="Ethylene">ethylene</a>, represented by the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chemical_equation" title="Chemical equation">chemical equation</a></p> <dl><dd><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethylene" title="Ethylene">C<sub>2</sub>H<sub>4</sub></a><sub>(g)</sub> + <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Water" title="Water">H<sub>2</sub>O</a><sub>(g)</sub> → CH<sub>3</sub>CH<sub>2</sub>OH<sub>(l)</sub></dd></dl> <p>The catalyst is most commonly <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phosphoric_acid" title="Phosphoric acid">phosphoric acid</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-r_and_c_15-0" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethanol#cite_note-r_and_c-15" title="">[16]</a></sup> <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adsorption" title="Adsorption">adsorbed</a> onto a porous support such as <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diatomaceous_earth" title="Diatomaceous earth">diatomaceous earth</a> or <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charcoal" title="Charcoal">charcoal</a>. This catalyst was first used for large-scale ethanol production by the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shell_Oil_Company" title="Shell Oil Company">Shell Oil Company</a> in 1947.<sup id="cite_ref-ECT4_820_16-0" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethanol#cite_note-ECT4_820-16" title="">[17]</a></sup> The reaction is carried out with an excess of high pressure steam at 300 °C.</p> <p>In an older process, first practiced on the industrial scale in 1930 by <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Union_Carbide" title="Union Carbide">Union Carbide</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-ECT4_817_17-0" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethanol#cite_note-ECT4_817-17" title="">[18]</a></sup> but now almost entirely obsolete, ethylene was hydrated indirectly by reacting it with concentrated <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sulfuric_acid" title="Sulfuric acid">sulfuric acid</a> to produce <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethyl_sulfate" title="Ethyl sulfate">ethyl sulfate</a>, which was then <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydrolysis" title="Hydrolysis">hydrolyzed</a> to yield ethanol and regenerate the sulfuric acid:<sup id="cite_ref-s_and_h_12-5" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethanol#cite_note-s_and_h-12" title="">[13]</a></sup></p> <dl><dd><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethylene" title="Ethylene">C<sub>2</sub>H<sub>4</sub></a> + <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sulfuric_acid" title="Sulfuric acid">H<sub>2</sub>SO<sub>4</sub></a> → <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethyl_sulfate" title="Ethyl sulfate">CH<sub>3</sub>CH<sub>2</sub>SO<sub>4</sub>H</a></dd></dl> <dl><dd><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethyl_sulfate" title="Ethyl sulfate">CH<sub>3</sub>CH<sub>2</sub>SO<sub>4</sub>H</a> + <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Water" title="Water">H<sub>2</sub>O</a> → CH<sub>3</sub>CH<sub>2</sub>OH + <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sulfuric_acid" title="Sulfuric acid">H<sub>2</sub>SO<sub>4</sub></a></dd></dl> <p><a name="Fermentation" id="Fermentation"></a></p> <h3><span class="editsection">[<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ethanol&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Fermentation">edit</a>]</span> <span class="mw-headline">Fermentation</span></h3> <dl><dd> <div class="boilerplate seealso"><i>For more details on this topic, see <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethanol_fermentation" title="Ethanol fermentation">Ethanol fermentation</a>.</i></div> </dd></dl> <p>Ethanol for use in <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alcoholic_beverage" title="Alcoholic beverage">alcoholic beverages</a>, and the vast majority of ethanol for use as fuel, is produced by fermentation. When certain species of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yeast" title="Yeast">yeast</a>, most importantly, <i><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saccharomyces_cerevisiae" title="Saccharomyces cerevisiae">Saccharomyces cerevisiae</a></i>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metabolism" title="Metabolism">metabolize</a> <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polysaccharide" title="Polysaccharide">sugar</a> in the absence of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oxygen" title="Oxygen">oxygen</a>, they produce ethanol and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbon_dioxide" title="Carbon dioxide">carbon dioxide</a>. The chemical equation below summarizes the conversion:</p> <dl><dd><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glucose" title="Glucose">C<sub>6</sub>H<sub>12</sub>O<sub>6</sub></a> → 2 CH<sub>3</sub>CH<sub>2</sub>OH + 2 <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbon_dioxide" title="Carbon dioxide">CO<sub>2</sub></a></dd></dl> <p>The process of culturing yeast under conditions to produce alcohol is called <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fermentation" title="Fermentation">fermentation</a>. Ethanol's toxicity to yeast limits the ethanol concentration obtainable by brewing. The most ethanol-tolerant strains of yeast can survive up to approximately 15% ethanol by volume.<sup id="cite_ref-mosttolerant_18-0" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethanol#cite_note-mosttolerant-18" title="">[19]</a></sup></p> <p>The fermentation process must exclude oxygen. If oxygen is present, yeast undergo <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aerobic_respiration" class="mw-redirect" title="Aerobic respiration">aerobic respiration</a> which produces <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbon_dioxide" title="Carbon dioxide">carbon dioxide</a> and water rather than ethanol.</p> <p>In order to produce ethanol from starchy materials such as <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cereal_grain" class="mw-redirect" title="Cereal grain">cereal grains</a>, the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Starch" title="Starch">starch</a> must first be converted into sugars. In brewing <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beer" title="Beer">beer</a>, this has traditionally been accomplished by allowing the grain to germinate, or <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malt" title="Malt">malt</a>, which produces the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enzyme" title="Enzyme">enzyme</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amylase" title="Amylase">amylase</a>. When the malted grain is <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mashing" title="Mashing">mashed</a>, the amylase converts the remaining starches into sugars. For fuel ethanol, the hydrolysis of starch into glucose can be accomplished more rapidly by treatment with dilute sulfuric acid, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fungi" class="mw-redirect" title="Fungi">fungally</a> produced amylase, or some combination of the two.<sup id="cite_ref-hydrolysis_19-0" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethanol#cite_note-hydrolysis-19" title="">[20]</a></sup></p> <p><a name="Cellulosic_ethanol" id="Cellulosic_ethanol"></a></p> <h3><span class="editsection">[<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ethanol&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Cellulosic ethanol">edit</a>]</span> <span class="mw-headline">Cellulosic ethanol</span></h3> <dl><dd> <div class="noprint relarticle mainarticle"><i>Main article: <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cellulosic_ethanol" title="Cellulosic ethanol">Cellulosic ethanol</a></i></div> </dd></dl> <p>Sugars for <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethanol_fermentation" title="Ethanol fermentation">ethanol fermentation</a> can be obtained from <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cellulose" title="Cellulose">cellulose</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethanol#cite_note-20" title="">[21]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethanol#cite_note-21" title="">[22]</a></sup> Until recently, however, the cost of the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cellulase" title="Cellulase">cellulase</a> enzymes capable of hydrolyzing cellulose has been prohibitive. The <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canada" title="Canada">Canadian</a> firm <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iogen_Corp." title="Iogen Corp.">Iogen</a> brought the first cellulose-based ethanol plant on-stream in 2004.<sup id="cite_ref-Ritter_22-0" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethanol#cite_note-Ritter-22" title="">[23]</a></sup> Its primary consumer so far has been the Canadian government, which, along with the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Department_of_Energy" title="United States Department of Energy">United States Department of Energy</a>, has invested heavily in the commercialization of cellulosic ethanol. Deployment of this technology could turn a number of cellulose-containing agricultural byproducts, such as <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Corncob" title="Corncob">corncobs</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Straw" title="Straw">straw</a>, and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sawdust" title="Sawdust">sawdust</a>, into renewable energy resources. Other enzyme companies are developing genetically engineered fungi that produce large volumes of cellulase, xylanase, and hemicellulase enzymes. These would convert agricultural residues such as corn stover, wheat straw, and sugar cane bagasse and energy crops such as <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Switchgrass" class="mw-redirect" title="Switchgrass">switchgrass</a> into fermentable sugars.<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethanol#cite_note-23" title="">[24]</a></sup></p> <p>Cellulose-bearing materials typically also contain other <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polysaccharide" title="Polysaccharide">polysaccharides</a>, including <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hemicellulose" title="Hemicellulose">hemicellulose</a>. When <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydrolysis" title="Hydrolysis">hydrolyzed</a>, hemicellulose decomposes into mostly five-carbon sugars such as <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xylose" title="Xylose">xylose</a>. <i>S. cerevisiae</i>, the yeast most commonly used for ethanol production, cannot metabolize xylose. Other yeasts and bacteria are under investigation to ferment xylose and other <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pentose" title="Pentose">pentoses</a> into ethanol.<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethanol#cite_note-24" title="">[25]</a></sup></p> <p>On <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/January_14" title="January 14">January 14</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2008" title="2008">2008</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/General_Motors" title="General Motors">General Motors</a> announced a partnership with Coskata, Inc. The goal is to produce cellulosic ethanol cheaply, with an eventual goal of US$1 per U.S. gallon ($0.30/L) for the fuel. The partnership plans to begin producing the fuel in large quantity by the end of 2008. By 2011 a full-scale plant will come on line, capable of producing 50 to 100 million gallons of ethanol a year (200–400 <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Megalitre" class="mw-redirect" title="Megalitre">ML</a>/<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Year" title="Year">a</a>).<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethanol#cite_note-25" title="">[26]</a></sup></p> <p><a name="Prospective_technologies" id="Prospective_technologies"></a></p> <h3><span class="editsection">[<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ethanol&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Prospective technologies">edit</a>]</span> <span class="mw-headline">Prospective technologies</span></h3> <p>The <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anaerobic_bacteria" class="mw-redirect" title="Anaerobic bacteria">anaerobic bacterium</a> <i><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clostridium" title="Clostridium">Clostridium</a> ljungdahlii</i>, recently discovered in commercial chicken wastes, can produce ethanol from single-carbon sources including <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Synthesis_gas" class="mw-redirect" title="Synthesis gas">synthesis gas</a>, a mixture of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbon_monoxide" title="Carbon monoxide">carbon monoxide</a> and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydrogen" title="Hydrogen">hydrogen</a> that can be generated from the partial <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Combustion" title="Combustion">combustion</a> of either <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fossil_fuel" title="Fossil fuel">fossil fuels</a> or <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biomass" title="Biomass">biomass</a>. Use of these bacteria to produce ethanol from synthesis gas has progressed to the pilot plant stage at the BRI Energy facility in <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fayetteville%2C_Arkansas" title="Fayetteville, Arkansas">Fayetteville, Arkansas</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethanol#cite_note-26" title="">[27]</a></sup></p> <p>Another prospective technology is the closed-loop ethanol plant.<sup id="cite_ref-clAlc_27-0" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethanol#cite_note-clAlc-27" title="">[28]</a></sup> Ethanol produced from corn has a number of critics who suggest that it is primarily just recycled fossil fuels because of the energy required to grow the grain and convert it into ethanol. There is also the issue of competition with use of corn for food production. However, the closed-loop ethanol plant attempts to address this criticism. In a closed-loop plant, the energy for the distillation comes from fermented manure, produced from cattle that have been fed the by-products from the distillation. The leftover manure is then used to fertilize the soil used to grow the grain. Such a process is expected to have a much lower fossil fuel requirement.<sup id="cite_ref-Rapier-1_28-0" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethanol#cite_note-Rapier-1-28" title="">[29]</a></sup></p> <p>Though in an early stage of research, there is some development of alternative production methods that use feed stocks such as municipal waste or recycled products, rice hulls, sugarcane bagasse, small diameter trees, wood chips, and switchgrass.<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethanol#cite_note-29" title="">[30]</a></sup></p> <p><a name="Testing" id="Testing"></a></p> <h3><span class="editsection">[<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ethanol&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Testing">edit</a>]</span> <span class="mw-headline">Testing</span></h3> <div class="thumb tright"> <div class="thumbinner" style="width: 242px;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Ethanol_near_IR_spectrum.png" class="image" title="Near infrared spectrum of liquid ethanol."><img alt="Near infrared spectrum of liquid ethanol." src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/Ethanol_near_IR_spectrum.png/240px-Ethanol_near_IR_spectrum.png" class="thumbimage" width="240" border="0" height="167" /></a> <div class="thumbcaption"> <div class="magnify"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Ethanol_near_IR_spectrum.png" class="internal" title="Enlarge"><img src="http://en.wikipedia.org/skins-1.5/common/images/magnify-clip.png" alt="" width="15" height="11" /></a></div> <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Near_infrared_spectrum" class="mw-redirect" title="Near infrared spectrum">Near infrared spectrum</a> of liquid ethanol.</div> </div> </div> <p>Breweries and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biofuel" title="Biofuel">biofuel</a> plants employ two methods for measuring ethanol concentration. Infrared ethanol sensors measure the vibrational frequency of dissolved ethanol using the CH band at 2900 cm<sup>−1</sup>. This method uses a relatively inexpensive solid state sensor that compares the CH band with a reference band to calculate the ethanol content. The calculation makes use of the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beer-Lambert_law" title="Beer-Lambert law">Beer-Lambert law</a>. Alternatively, by measuring the density of the starting material and the density of the product, using a <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydrometer" title="Hydrometer">hydrometer</a>, the change in specific gravity during fermentation indicates the alcohol content. This inexpensive and indirect method has a long history in the beer brewing industry.</p> <p><a name="Purification" id="Purification"></a></p> <h3><span class="editsection">[<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ethanol&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Purification">edit</a>]</span> <span class="mw-headline">Purification</span></h3> <dl><dd> <div class="noprint relarticle mainarticle"><i>Main article: <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethanol_purification" title="Ethanol purification">Ethanol purification</a></i></div> </dd></dl> <p>Ethylene hydration or brewing produces an ethanol–water mixture. For most industrial and fuel uses, the ethanol must be purified. <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fractional_distillation" title="Fractional distillation">Fractional distillation</a> can concentrate ethanol to 95.6% by weight (89.5 mole%). This mixture is an <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Azeotrope" title="Azeotrope">azeotrope</a> with a boiling point of 78.1 °C, and cannot be further purified by distillation.</p> <p>In one common industrial method to obtain absolute alcohol, a small quantity of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benzene" title="Benzene">benzene</a> is added to <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rectified_spirit" title="Rectified spirit">rectified spirit</a> and the mixture is then distilled. Absolute alcohol is obtained in the third fraction, which distills over at 78.3 °C (351.4 K).<sup id="cite_ref-m_and_b_9-4" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethanol#cite_note-m_and_b-9" title="">[10]</a></sup> Because a small amount of the benzene used remains in the solution, absolute alcohol produced by this method is not suitable for consumption, as benzene is <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carcinogenic" class="mw-redirect" title="Carcinogenic">carcinogenic</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethanol#cite_note-30" title="">[31]</a></sup></p> <p>There is also an absolute alcohol production process by <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Desiccation" title="Desiccation">desiccation</a> using <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glycerol" title="Glycerol">glycerol</a>. Alcohol produced by this method is known as spectroscopic alcohol — so called because the absence of benzene makes it suitable as a solvent in <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spectroscopy" title="Spectroscopy">spectroscopy</a>.</p> <p>Other methods for obtaining absolute ethanol include desiccation using adsorbents such as starch or <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zeolite" title="Zeolite">zeolites</a>, which adsorb water preferentially, as well as <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Azeotropic_distillation" title="Azeotropic distillation">azeotropic distillation</a> and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extractive_distillation" title="Extractive distillation">extractive distillation</a>.<br /></p> <p><a name="Grades_of_ethanol" id="Grades_of_ethanol"></a></p> <h2><span class="editsection">[<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ethanol&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Grades of ethanol">edit</a>]</span> <span class="mw-headline">Grades of ethanol</span></h2> <p><a name="Denatured_alcohol" id="Denatured_alcohol"></a></p> <h3><span class="editsection">[<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ethanol&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Denatured alcohol">edit</a>]</span> <span class="mw-headline">Denatured alcohol</span></h3> <dl><dd> <div class="noprint relarticle mainarticle"><i>Main article: <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Denatured_alcohol" title="Denatured alcohol">Denatured alcohol</a></i></div> </dd></dl> <p>Pure ethanol and alcoholic beverages are heavily taxed, but ethanol has many uses that do not involve consumption by humans. To relieve the tax burden on these uses, most jurisdictions waive the tax when an agent has been added to the ethanol to render it unfit to drink. These include bittering agents such as <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Denatonium_benzoate" class="mw-redirect" title="Denatonium benzoate">denatonium benzoate</a> and toxins such as <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Methanol" title="Methanol">methanol</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Naphtha" title="Naphtha">naphtha</a>, and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pyridine" title="Pyridine">pyridine</a>. Products of this kind are called <i>denatured alcohol.</i><sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethanol#cite_note-31" title="">[32]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethanol#cite_note-32" title="">[33]</a></sup></p> <p><a name="Absolute_ethanol" id="Absolute_ethanol"></a></p> <h3><span class="editsection">[<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ethanol&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Absolute ethanol">edit</a>]</span> <span class="mw-headline">Absolute ethanol</span></h3> <p>Absolute or anhydrous alcohol generally refers to purified ethanol, containing no more than one percent <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Water" title="Water">water</a>. Absolute alcohol not intended for human consumption often contains trace amounts of toxic benzene (used to remove water by azeotropic distillation). Generally this kind of ethanol is used as solvents for lab and industrial settings where water will disrupt a desired reaction.</p> <p>Pure ethanol is classed as 200 <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proof_%28alcohol%29" title="Proof (alcohol)">proof</a> in the USA, equivalent to 175 degrees proof in the UK system.</p> <p><a name="Use" id="Use"></a></p> <h2><span class="editsection">[<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ethanol&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Use">edit</a>]</span> <span class="mw-headline">Use</span></h2> <p><a name="As_a_fuel" id="As_a_fuel"></a></p> <h3><span class="editsection">[<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ethanol&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: As a fuel">edit</a>]</span> <span class="mw-headline">As a fuel</span></h3> <table class="wikitable" style="float: right; margin-left: 1em;"> <tbody><tr> <th align="left">Fuel type</th> <th align="right"> MJ/L</th> <th align="right"> MJ/kg</th> <th align="right"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Octane_rating" title="Octane rating">Research<br />octane<br />number</a></th> </tr> <tr> <td><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethanol_fuel" title="Ethanol fuel">Ethanol</a></td> <td align="right">23.5</td> <td align="right">31.1<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethanol#cite_note-33" title="">[34]</a></sup></td> <td align="right">129</td> </tr> <tr> <td><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Methanol" title="Methanol">Methanol</a></td> <td align="right">17.9</td> <td align="right">19.9</td> <td align="right">123</td> </tr> <tr> <td>Regular Gasoline</td> <td align="right">34.8</td> <td align="right">44.4<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethanol#cite_note-34" title="">[35]</a></sup></td> <td align="right">Min 91</td> </tr> <tr> <td>Premium Gasoline</td> <td align="right"><br /></td> <td align="right"><br /></td> <td align="right">Min 95</td> </tr> <tr> <td><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aviation_gasoline" class="mw-redirect" title="Aviation gasoline">Aviation gasoline</a><br />(high octane gasoline, not Jet fuel)</td> <td align="right">33.5</td> <td align="right">46.8</td> <td align="right"><br /></td> </tr> <tr> <td><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alcohol_fuel" title="Alcohol fuel">Gasohol</a><br />(90% gasoline + 10% ethanol)</td> <td align="right">33.7</td> <td align="right"><br /></td> <td align="right">93/94</td> </tr> <tr> <td><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Autogas" title="Autogas">Autogas</a> (<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liquified_petroleum_gas" class="mw-redirect" title="Liquified petroleum gas">LPG</a>)<br />(60% <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Propane" title="Propane">Propane</a> + 40% <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Butane" title="Butane">Butane</a>)</td> <td align="right">26.8</td> <td align="right"><br /></td> <td align="right"><br /></td> </tr> <tr> <td><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liquefied_natural_gas" title="Liquefied natural gas">Liquefied natural gas</a></td> <td align="right">25.3</td> <td align="right">~55</td> <td align="right"><br /></td> </tr> <tr> <td><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diesel" title="Diesel">Diesel</a></td> <td align="right">38.60</td> <td align="right">45.41</td> <td align="right">25</td> </tr> <tr> <th colspan="4">Volumetric <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Energy_density" title="Energy density">energy density</a> of some fuels compared with ethanol:<sup id="cite_ref-TEDB_35-0" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethanol#cite_note-TEDB-35" title="">[36]</a></sup><br /></th> </tr> </tbody></table> <dl><dd> <div class="noprint relarticle mainarticle"><i>Main article: <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethanol_fuel" title="Ethanol fuel">Ethanol fuel</a></i></div> </dd></dl> <p>The largest single use of ethanol is as a motor <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fuel" title="Fuel">fuel</a> and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fuel_additive" class="mw-redirect" title="Fuel additive">fuel additive</a>. The largest national fuel ethanol industries exist in <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brazil" title="Brazil">Brazil</a> (gasoline sold in Brazil contains at least 25% ethanol and anhydrous ethanol is also used as fuel in more than 90% of new cars sold in the country). The Brazilian production of ethanol is praised for the high <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbon_sequestration" class="mw-redirect" title="Carbon sequestration">carbon sequestration</a> capabilities of the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sugar_cane" class="mw-redirect" title="Sugar cane">sugar cane</a> <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plantations" class="mw-redirect" title="Plantations">plantations</a>, thus making it a real option to combat <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change" title="Climate change">climate change</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-WaPo-Brazil_36-0" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethanol#cite_note-WaPo-Brazil-36" title="">[37]</a></sup></p> <p><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henry_Ford" title="Henry Ford">Henry Ford</a> designed the first mass-produced automobile, the famed Model T Ford, to run on pure anhydrous (ethanol) alcohol -- he said it was "the fuel of the future". Today, however, 100% pure ethanol is not approved as a motor vehicle fuel in the US. Added to gasoline, ethanol reduces ground-level ozone formation by lowering volatile organic compound and hydrocarbon emissions, decreasing carcinogenic benzene, and butadiene, emissions, and particulate matter emissions from gasoline combustion.<sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethanol#cite_note-37" title="">[38]</a></sup></p> <p>Prior to the development of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electronic_fuel_injection" class="mw-redirect" title="Electronic fuel injection">electronic fuel injection</a> (EFI) and computerized engine management, the lower energy content of ethanol required that the engine <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carburetor" title="Carburetor">carburetor</a> be <i>rejetted</i> to permit a larger volume of fuel to mix with the intake air. EFI is able to actively compensate for varying fuel energy densities by <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oxygen_sensor" title="Oxygen sensor">monitoring the oxygen content</a> of exhaust gases. However, a standard EFI gasoline engine can typically only tolerate up to 10% ethanol and 90% gasoline. Higher ethanol ratios require either larger-volume <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fuel_injector" class="mw-redirect" title="Fuel injector">fuel injectors</a> or an increase in <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fuel_rail" title="Fuel rail">fuel rail</a> pressure to deliver the greater liquid volume needed to equal the energy content of pure gasoline.</p> <p>Today, more than 20% of the Brazilian fleet of cars on the streets<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethanol#cite_note-38" title="">[39]</a></sup> are able to use 100% ethanol as fuel, which includes ethanol-only engines and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flexible-fuel_vehicle" title="Flexible-fuel vehicle">flex-fuel</a> engines. Flex-fuel engines in Brazil are able to work with all ethanol, all gasoline or any mixture of both. In the US flex-fuel vehicles can run on 0% to 85% ethanol (15% gasoline) since higher ethanol blends are not yet allowed. Brazil supports this population of ethanol-burning automobiles with large national infrastructure that produces ethanol from domestically grown <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sugar_cane" class="mw-redirect" title="Sugar cane">sugar cane</a>. <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sugar_cane" class="mw-redirect" title="Sugar cane">Sugar cane</a> not only has a greater concentration of sucrose than corn (by about 30%), but is also much easier to extract. The <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bagasse" title="Bagasse">bagasse</a> generated by the process is not wasted, but is utilized in power plants as a surprisingly efficient fuel to produce electricity.</p> <p>World production of ethanol in 2006 was 51 gigalitres (13,000,000,000 US gal), with 69% of the world supply coming from Brazil and the United States.<sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethanol#cite_note-39" title="">[40]</a></sup></p> <p>The United States fuel ethanol industry is based largely on <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Corn" class="mw-redirect" title="Corn">corn</a>. According to the Renewable Fuels Association, as of October 30, 2007, 131 grain ethanol bio-refineries in the United States have the capacity to produce 7.0 billion US gallons (26 GL) of ethanol per year. An additional 72 construction projects underway (in the U.S.) can add 6.4 billion gallons of new capacity in the next 18 months. Over time, it is believed that a material portion of the ~150 billion gallon per year market for gasoline will begin to be replaced with fuel ethanol.<sup id="cite_ref-rfa1_40-0" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethanol#cite_note-rfa1-40" title="">[41]</a></sup></p> <p>The <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Energy_Policy_Act_of_2005" title="Energy Policy Act of 2005">Energy Policy Act of 2005</a> requires that 4 billion gallons of "renewable fuel" be used in 2006 and this requirement will grow to a yearly production of 7.5 billion gallons by 2012.<sup id="cite_ref-epa1_41-0" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethanol#cite_note-epa1-41" title="">[42]</a></sup></p> <div class="thumb tright"> <div class="thumbinner" style="width: 227px;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Ethanol_Car.jpg" class="image" title="A Ford Taurus "fueled by clean burning ethanol" owned by New York City."><img alt="A Ford Taurus "fueled by clean burning ethanol" owned by New York City." src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f8/Ethanol_Car.jpg/225px-Ethanol_Car.jpg" class="thumbimage" width="225" border="0" height="168" /></a> <div class="thumbcaption"> <div class="magnify"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Ethanol_Car.jpg" class="internal" title="Enlarge"><img src="http://en.wikipedia.org/skins-1.5/common/images/magnify-clip.png" alt="" width="15" height="11" /></a></div> A <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ford_Taurus" title="Ford Taurus">Ford Taurus</a> "fueled by clean burning ethanol" owned by <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_York_City" title="New York City">New York City</a>.</div> </div> </div> <p>In the United States, ethanol is most commonly blended with gasoline as a 10% ethanol blend nicknamed "gasohol". This blend is widely sold throughout the U.S. <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Midwest" class="mw-redirect" title="Midwest">Midwest</a>, and in cities required by the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1990_Clean_Air_Act" class="mw-redirect" title="1990 Clean Air Act">1990 Clean Air Act</a> to oxygenate their gasoline during the winter.</p> <p><a name="Controversy" id="Controversy"></a></p> <h4><span class="editsection">[<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ethanol&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Controversy">edit</a>]</span> <span class="mw-headline">Controversy</span></h4> <dl><dd><span class="boilerplate further"><i>Further information: <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Food_vs_fuel" title="Food vs fuel">Food vs fuel</a></i></span></dd></dl> <p>It is disputed whether ethanol as an automotive fuel results in a net energy gain or loss. As reported in "The Energy Balance of Corn Ethanol: an Update,"<sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethanol#cite_note-42" title="">[43]</a></sup> the energy returned on energy invested (<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/EROEI" title="EROEI">EROEI</a>) for ethanol made from corn in the U.S. is 1.34 (it yields 34% more energy than it takes to produce it). Input energy includes natural gas based fertilizers, farm equipment, transformation from corn or other materials, and transportation. However, other researchers report that the production of ethanol consumes more energy than it yields.<sup id="cite_ref-Pimentel2005_43-0" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethanol#cite_note-Pimentel2005-43" title="">[44]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethanol#cite_note-44" title="">[45]</a></sup> In comparison, sugar cane ethanol EROEI is at around 8 (it yields 8 joules for each joule used to produce it).<sup class="noprint Template-Fact"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources since April 2008" style="white-space: nowrap;">[<i><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a></i>]</span></sup> Recent research suggests that cellulosic crops such as <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Switchgrass" class="mw-redirect" title="Switchgrass">switchgrass</a> provide a much better net energy production than corn, producing over five times as much energy as the total used to produce the crop and convert it to fuel.<sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethanol#cite_note-45" title="">[46]</a></sup> If this research is confirmed, cellulosic crops will most likely displace corn as the main fuel crop for producing bioethanol.</p> <p>Michael Grunwald reports that one person could be fed 365 days "on the corn needed to fill an ethanol-fueled SUV".<sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethanol#cite_note-46" title="">[47]</a></sup> He further reports that though "hyped as an eco-friendly fuel, ethanol increases global warming, destroys forests and inflates food prices." Environmentalists, livestock farmers, and opponents of subsidies say that increased ethanol production won't meet energy goals and may damage the environment, while at the same time causing worldwide food prices to soar. Some of the controversial subsidies in the past have included more than $10 billion to <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archer-Daniels-Midland" class="mw-redirect" title="Archer-Daniels-Midland">Archer-Daniels-Midland</a> since 1980.<sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethanol#cite_note-47" title="">[48]</a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template"><span title="This statement may not be entirely without bias from April 2008" style="white-space: nowrap;">[<i><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Neutral_point_of_view" title="Wikipedia:Neutral point of view">neutrality disputed</a></i>]</span></sup> Critics also speculate that as ethanol is more widely used, changing irrigation practices could greatly increase pressure on water resources. In October 2007, 28 environmental groups decried the Renewable Fuels Standard (RFS), a legislative effort intended to increase ethanol production, and said that the measure will "lead to substantial environmental damage and a system of biofuels production that will not benefit family farmers...will not promote sustainable agriculture and will not mitigate global climate change."<sup id="cite_ref-csm_48-0" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethanol#cite_note-csm-48" title="">[49]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-bw0307_49-0" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethanol#cite_note-bw0307-49" title="">[50]</a></sup></p> <p>Recent articles have also blamed subsidized ethanol production for the nearly 200% increase in milk prices since 2004,<sup id="cite_ref-cnn0607_50-0" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethanol#cite_note-cnn0607-50" title="">[51]</a></sup> although that is disputed by some<sup class="noprint Template-Fact"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources since March 2008" style="white-space: nowrap;">[<i><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a></i>]</span></sup>. Ethanol production uses the starch portion of corn, but the leftover protein can be used to create a high-nutrient, low-cost animal feed.<sup id="cite_ref-51" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethanol#cite_note-51" title="">[52]</a></sup></p> <p>In 2007 the United Nations' independent expert on the right to food, called for a five-year moratorium on biofuel production from food crops, to allow time for development of non-food sources. He called recent increases in food costs because of fuel production, such as the quadrupling of world corn price in one year, a growing "catastrophe" for the poor.<sup id="cite_ref-52" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethanol#cite_note-52" title="">[53]</a></sup> In February 2007, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2007%E2%80%932008_world_food_price_crisis" title="2007–2008 world food price crisis">riots</a> occurred in Mexico because of the skyrocketing price of tortillas. Ethanol has been credited as the reason for this increase in food prices <a href="http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/americas/6319093.stm" class="external autonumber" title="http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/americas/6319093.stm" rel="nofollow">[1]</a>. The demand for corn has had a rippling effect on many corn-based products, like tortillas. The effects of ethanol and the increasing cost of food have also been felt in Pakistan, Indonesia, and Egypt <a href="http://www.openmarket.org/2008/04/08/ethanol-subsidies-cause-food-riots-in-mexico-pakistan-indonesia-yemen-and-egypt/" class="external autonumber" title="http://www.openmarket.org/2008/04/08/ethanol-subsidies-cause-food-riots-in-mexico-pakistan-indonesia-yemen-and-egypt/" rel="nofollow">[2]</a>.</p> <p>Oil has historically had a much higher <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/EROEI" title="EROEI">EROEI</a> than corn produced ethanol, according to some<sup class="noprint Template-Fact"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources since March 2008" style="white-space: nowrap;">[<i><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a></i>]</span></sup>. However, oil must be refined into gasoline before it can be used for automobile fuel. Refining, as well as exploration and drilling, consumes energy. The difference between the energy in the fuel (output energy) and the energy needed to produce it (input energy) is often expressed as a percent of the input energy and called net energy gain (or loss). Several studies released in 2002 estimated that the net energy gain for <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Corn_ethanol" title="Corn ethanol">corn ethanol</a> is between 21 and 34 percent. The net energy loss for <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MTBE" class="mw-redirect" title="MTBE">MTBE</a> is about 33 percent. When added to gasoline, ethanol can replace MTBE as an anti-knock agent without poisoning drinking water as MTBE does. In Brazil, where the broadest and longest ethanol producing experiment took place, improvements in agricultural practices and ethanol production improvements led to an increase in ethanol net energy gain from 300% to over 800% in recent years.<sup class="noprint Template-Fact"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources since May 2008" style="white-space: nowrap;">[<i><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a></i>]</span></sup> Consuming known oil reserves is increasing oil exploration and drilling energy consumption which is reducing <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/EROEI" title="EROEI">oil EROEI</a> (and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Energy_balance" title="Energy balance">energy balance</a>) further.<sup id="cite_ref-53" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethanol#cite_note-53" title="">[54]</a></sup></p> <p>Opponents claim that corn ethanol production does not result in a net energy gain or that the consequences of large scale ethanol production to the food industry and environment offset any potential gains from ethanol. It has been estimated that "if every bushel of U.S. <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Corn" class="mw-redirect" title="Corn">corn</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wheat" title="Wheat">wheat</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rice" title="Rice">rice</a> and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soybean" title="Soybean">soybean</a> were used to produce ethanol, it would only cover about 4% of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Energy_policy_of_the_United_States" title="Energy policy of the United States">U.S. energy needs</a> on a net basis."<sup id="cite_ref-54" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethanol#cite_note-54" title="">[55]</a></sup> Many of the issues raised could likely be fixed by techniques now in development that produce ethanol from agricultural waste, such as paper waste, switchgrass, and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Energy_crop" title="Energy crop">other materials</a>, but EIA Forecasts Significant Shortfall in Cellulosic Biofuel Production Compared to Target Set by Renewable Fuel Standard.<sup id="cite_ref-55" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethanol#cite_note-55" title="">[56]</a></sup></p> <p>Proponents cite the potential gains to the U.S. economy both from domestic fuel production and increased demand for corn. Optimistic calculations project that the United States is capable of producing enough ethanol to completely replace gasoline consumption.<sup class="noprint Template-Fact"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources since April 2008" style="white-space: nowrap;">[<i><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a></i>]</span></sup> In comparison, Brazil's ethanol consumption today covers more than 50% of all energy used by vehicles in that country.</p> <p>In the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States" title="United States">United States</a>, preferential regulatory and tax treatment of ethanol automotive fuels introduces complexities beyond its energy economics alone. North American automakers have in 2006 and 2007 promoted a blend of 85% ethanol and 15% gasoline, marketed as <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/E85" title="E85">E85</a>, and their <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flexible-fuel_vehicle" title="Flexible-fuel vehicle">flex-fuel vehicles</a>, <i>e.g.</i> <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/General_Motors" title="General Motors">GM's</a> "<a href="http://www.livegreengoyellow.com/" class="external text" title="http://www.livegreengoyellow.com/" rel="nofollow">Live Green, Go Yellow</a>" campaign.<sup id="cite_ref-autochannel_56-0" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethanol#cite_note-autochannel-56" title="">[57]</a></sup> The apparent motivation is the nature of U.S. <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CAFE" class="mw-redirect" title="CAFE">Corporate Average Fuel Economy (CAFE)</a> standards, which give an effective 54% fuel efficiency bonus to vehicles capable of running on 85% alcohol blends over vehicles not adapted to run on 85% alcohol blends.<sup id="cite_ref-57" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethanol#cite_note-57" title="">[58]</a></sup> In addition to this auto manufacturer-driven impetus for 85% alcohol blends, the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Environmental_Protection_Agency" title="United States Environmental Protection Agency">United States Environmental Protection Agency</a> had authority to mandate that minimum proportions of oxygenates be added to automotive gasoline on regional and seasonal bases from 1992 until 2006 in an attempt to reduce air pollution, in particular <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ground-level_ozone" class="mw-redirect" title="Ground-level ozone">ground-level ozone</a> and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Smog" title="Smog">smog</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-58" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethanol#cite_note-58" title="">[59]</a></sup> In the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States" title="United States">United States</a>, incidents of methyl tert(iary)-butyl ether (<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MTBE" class="mw-redirect" title="MTBE">MTBE</a>) groundwater contamination have been recorded in the majority of the 50 states,<sup id="cite_ref-59" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethanol#cite_note-59" title="">[60]</a></sup> and the State of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/California" title="California">California's</a> ban on the use of MTBE as a gasoline additive has further driven the more widespread use of ethanol as the most common fuel oxygenate.<sup id="cite_ref-epamtbe_60-0" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethanol#cite_note-epamtbe-60" title="">[61]</a></sup></p> <p>A <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/February_7" title="February 7">February 7</a>, 2008 <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Associated_Press" title="Associated Press">Associated Press</a> article stated, "The widespread use of ethanol from corn could result in nearly twice the greenhouse gas emissions as the gasoline it would replace because of expected land-use changes, researchers concluded Thursday. The study challenges the rush to biofuels as a response to global warming."<sup id="cite_ref-61" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethanol#cite_note-61" title="">[62]</a></sup></p> <p>One acre of land can yield about 7,110 pounds (3,225 kg) of corn, which can be processed into 328 gallons (1240.61 liters) of ethanol. That is about 26.1 pounds (11.84 kg) of corn per gallon.</p> <p><a name="Ethanol_Fuel_Cells" id="Ethanol_Fuel_Cells"></a></p> <h3><span class="editsection">[<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ethanol&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Ethanol Fuel Cells">edit</a>]</span> <span class="mw-headline">Ethanol Fuel Cells</span></h3> <dl><dd> <div class="noprint relarticle mainarticle"><i>Main article: <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Direct-ethanol_fuel_cell" title="Direct-ethanol fuel cell">Direct-ethanol fuel cell</a></i></div> </dd></dl> <p>Ethanol may be used as a fuel to power <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Direct-ethanol_fuel_cell" title="Direct-ethanol fuel cell">Direct-ethanol fuel cells</a> (<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Direct-ethanol_fuel_cell" title="Direct-ethanol fuel cell">DEFC</a>) in order to produce electricity and the by-products of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Water" title="Water">water</a> (<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/H20" class="mw-redirect" title="H20">H<sub>2</sub>O</a>) and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbon_dioxide" title="Carbon dioxide">carbon dioxide</a> (<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbon_dioxide" title="Carbon dioxide">CO<sub>2</sub></a>).<sup id="cite_ref-DEFC-chem_62-0" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethanol#cite_note-DEFC-chem-62" title="">[63]</a></sup> <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Platinum" title="Platinum">Platinum</a> is commonly used as an <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anode" title="Anode">anode</a> in such fuel cells in order to achieve a <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Power_density" class="mw-redirect" title="Power density">power density</a> that is comparable to competing technologies. Until recently the high price of platinum has been cost prohibitive. A company called <a href="http://www.acta-nanotech.com%7c/" class="external text" title="http://www.acta-nanotech.com|" rel="nofollow">Acta Nanotech</a> has created platinum free <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nanostructure" title="Nanostructure">nanostructured</a> <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anode" title="Anode">anodes</a> using more common and therefore less expensive metals.<sup id="cite_ref-Acta-car_63-0" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethanol#cite_note-Acta-car-63" title="">[64]</a></sup> A vehicle using a <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Direct-ethanol_fuel_cell" title="Direct-ethanol fuel cell">DEFC</a> and non-platinum nanostructured anodes was used in the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Royal_Dutch_Shell" title="Royal Dutch Shell">Shell</a> <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eco-Marathon" class="mw-redirect" title="Eco-Marathon">Eco-Marathon</a> <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2007" title="2007">2007</a> by a team from <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Offenburg" title="Offenburg">Offenburg</a> <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germany" title="Germany">Germany</a> which achieved an efficiency of 2716 <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Kilometers_per_liter&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Kilometers per liter (page does not exist)">kilometers per liter</a> (6388 <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Miles_per_gallon" title="Miles per gallon">miles per gallon</a>).<sup id="cite_ref-Offenburg-team_64-0" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethanol#cite_note-Offenburg-team-64" title="">[65]</a></sup></p> <p><a name="Rocket_fuel" id="Rocket_fuel"></a></p> <h3><span class="editsection">[<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ethanol&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Rocket fuel">edit</a>]</span> <span class="mw-headline">Rocket fuel</span></h3> <p>Ethanol was commonly used as fuel in early <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bipropellant" class="mw-redirect" title="Bipropellant">bipropellant</a> <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rocket" title="Rocket">rocket</a> vehicles, in conjunction with an <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oxidizer" class="mw-redirect" title="Oxidizer">oxidizer</a> such as liquid oxygen. The German <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/V-2" class="mw-redirect" title="V-2">V-2</a> rocket of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a>, credited with beginning the space age, used ethanol, mixed with water to reduce the combustion chamber temperature.<sup id="cite_ref-65" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethanol#cite_note-65" title="">[66]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-braeunig_66-0" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethanol#cite_note-braeunig-66" title="">[67]</a></sup> The V-2's design team helped develop U.S. rockets following World War II, including the ethanol-fueled <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Redstone_%28rocket%29" title="Redstone (rocket)">Redstone rocket</a>, which launched the first U.S. satellite.<sup id="cite_ref-67" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethanol#cite_note-67" title="">[68]</a></sup> Alcohols fell into general disuse as more efficient rocket fuels were developed.<sup id="cite_ref-braeunig_66-1" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethanol#cite_note-braeunig-66" title="">[67]</a></sup></p> <p><a name="Alcoholic_beverages" id="Alcoholic_beverages"></a></p> <h3><span class="editsection">[<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ethanol&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: Alcoholic beverages">edit</a>]</span> <span class="mw-headline">Alcoholic beverages</span></h3> <dl><dd> <div class="noprint relarticle mainarticle"><i>Main article: <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alcoholic_beverage" title="Alcoholic beverage">Alcoholic beverage</a></i></div> </dd></dl> <p>Ethanol is the principal psychoactive constituent in <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alcoholic_beverage" title="Alcoholic beverage">alcoholic beverages</a>, with <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Depressant" title="Depressant">depressant</a> effects to the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Central_nervous_system" title="Central nervous system">central nervous system</a>. It has a complex mode of action and affects multiple systems in the brain, most notably ethanol acts as an agonist to the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GABA_receptors" class="mw-redirect" title="GABA receptors">GABA receptors</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-68" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethanol#cite_note-68" title="">[69]</a></sup> Similar psychoactives include those which also interact with <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GABA_receptors" class="mw-redirect" title="GABA receptors">GABA receptors</a>, such as <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gamma-hydroxybutyric_acid" class="mw-redirect" title="Gamma-hydroxybutyric acid">gamma-hydroxybutyric acid</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-boggan2_69-0" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethanol#cite_note-boggan2-69" title="">[70]</a></sup> Ethanol is metabolized by the body as an energy-providing carbohydrate nutrient, as it metabolizes into <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acetyl_CoA" class="mw-redirect" title="Acetyl CoA">acetyl CoA</a>, an intermediate common with <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glucose" title="Glucose">glucose</a> metabolism, that can be used for energy in the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Citric_acid_cycle" title="Citric acid cycle">citric acid cycle</a> or for biosynthesis.</p> <p>Alcoholic beverages vary considerably in their ethanol content and in the foodstuffs from which they are produced. Most alcoholic beverages can be broadly classified as <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fermented_beverage" class="mw-redirect" title="Fermented beverage">fermented beverages</a>, beverages made by the action of yeast on sugary foodstuffs, or as <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Distilled_beverage" title="Distilled beverage">distilled beverages</a>, beverages whose preparation involves concentrating the ethanol in fermented beverages by <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Distillation" title="Distillation">distillation</a>. The ethanol content of a beverage is usually measured in terms of the volume fraction of ethanol in the beverage, expressed either as a percentage or in <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alcoholic_proof" class="mw-redirect" title="Alcoholic proof">alcoholic proof</a> units.</p> <p>Fermented beverages can be broadly classified by the foodstuff from which they are fermented. <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beer" title="Beer">Beers</a> are made from <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cereal_grain" class="mw-redirect" title="Cereal grain">cereal grains</a> or other <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Starch" title="Starch">starchy</a> materials, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wine" title="Wine">wines</a> and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cider" title="Cider">ciders</a> from <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fruit_juice" class="mw-redirect" title="Fruit juice">fruit juices</a>, and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mead" title="Mead">meads</a> from <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Honey" title="Honey">honey</a>. Cultures around the world have made fermented beverages from numerous other foodstuffs, and local and national names for various fermented beverages abound.</p> <p>Distilled beverages are made by distilling fermented beverages. Broad categories of distilled beverages include <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Whiskey" class="mw-redirect" title="Whiskey">whiskeys</a>, distilled from fermented cereal grains; <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brandy" title="Brandy">brandies</a>, distilled from fermented fruit juices, and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rum" title="Rum">rum</a>, distilled from fermented <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Molasses" title="Molasses">molasses</a> or <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sugarcane" title="Sugarcane">sugarcane</a> juice. <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vodka" title="Vodka">Vodka</a> and similar <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neutral_grain_spirits" class="mw-redirect" title="Neutral grain spirits">neutral grain spirits</a> can be distilled from any fermented material (grain or <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Potatoes" class="mw-redirect" title="Potatoes">potatoes</a> are most common); these spirits are so thoroughly distilled that no tastes from the particular starting material remain. Numerous other spirits and liqueurs are prepared by infusing flavors from <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fruit" title="Fruit">fruits</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Herb" title="Herb">herbs</a>, and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spice" title="Spice">spices</a> into distilled spirits. A traditional example is <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gin" title="Gin">gin</a>, which is created by infusing <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Juniper" title="Juniper">juniper</a> berries into a neutral grain alcohol.</p> <p>In a few beverages, ethanol is concentrated by means other than distillation. <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Applejack_%28beverage%29" title="Applejack (beverage)">Applejack</a> is traditionally made by <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Freeze_distillation" class="mw-redirect" title="Freeze distillation">freeze distillation</a>, by which water is frozen out of fermented <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apple_cider" title="Apple cider">apple cider</a>, leaving a more ethanol-rich liquid behind. <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Eisbier&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Eisbier (page does not exist)">Eisbier</a> (more commonly, <i><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eisbock" class="mw-redirect" title="Eisbock">eisbock</a></i>) is also freeze-distilled, with <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beer" title="Beer">beer</a> as the base beverage. <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fortified_wine" title="Fortified wine">Fortified wines</a> are prepared by adding brandy or some other distilled spirit to partially-fermented wine. This kills the yeast and conserves some of the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sugar" title="Sugar">sugar</a> in grape juice; such beverages are not only more ethanol-rich, but are often sweeter than other wines.</p> <p>Alcoholic beverages are sometimes used in cooking, not only for their inherent flavors, but also because the alcohol dissolves hydrophobic flavor compounds which water cannot.</p> <p><a name="Feedstock" id="Feedstock"></a></p> <h3><span class="editsection">[<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ethanol&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: Feedstock">edit</a>]</span> <span class="mw-headline">Feedstock</span></h3> <dl><dd> <div class="noprint relarticle mainarticle"><i>Main article: <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chemical_derivatives_of_ethanol" title="Chemical derivatives of ethanol">Chemical derivatives of ethanol</a></i></div> </dd></dl> <p>Ethanol is an important industrial ingredient and has widespread use as a base chemical for other organic compounds. These include ethyl <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halide" title="Halide">halides</a>, ethyl <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ester" title="Ester">esters</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diethyl_ether" title="Diethyl ether">diethyl ether</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acetic_acid" title="Acetic acid">acetic acid</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Butadiene" class="mw-redirect" title="Butadiene">butadiene</a>, and ethyl <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amine" title="Amine">amines</a>.</p> <p><a name="Antiseptic_use" id="Antiseptic_use"></a></p> <h3><span class="editsection">[<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ethanol&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: Antiseptic use">edit</a>]</span> <span class="mw-headline">Antiseptic use</span></h3> <p>Ethanol is used in medical wipes and in most common antibacterial <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hand_sanitizer" class="mw-redirect" title="Hand sanitizer">hand sanitizer</a> gels at a concentration of about 62% (<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Percentage" title="Percentage">percentage</a> by weight, not volume) as an <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antiseptic" title="Antiseptic">antiseptic</a>. Ethanol kills organisms by denaturing their <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Protein" title="Protein">proteins</a> and dissolving their <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lipid" title="Lipid">lipids</a> and is effective against most <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bacterium" class="mw-redirect" title="Bacterium">bacteria</a> and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fungus" title="Fungus">fungi</a>, and many <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Virus" title="Virus">viruses</a>, but is ineffective against bacterial <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spore" title="Spore">spores</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-70" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethanol#cite_note-70" title="">[71]</a></sup></p> <p><a name="Antidote_use" id="Antidote_use"></a></p> <h3><span class="editsection">[<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ethanol&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: Antidote use">edit</a>]</span> <span class="mw-headline">Antidote use</span></h3> <p>Ethanol can be used as an antidote for poisoning by other toxic alcohols, in particular <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Methanol" title="Methanol">methanol</a><sup id="cite_ref-cambridge_71-0" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethanol#cite_note-cambridge-71" title="">[72]</a></sup> and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethylene_glycol" title="Ethylene glycol">ethylene glycol</a>. Ethanol <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Competitive_inhibition" title="Competitive inhibition">competes</a> with other alcohols for the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alcohol_dehydrogenase" title="Alcohol dehydrogenase">alcohol dehydrogenase</a> enzyme, preventing metabolism into toxic <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aldehyde" title="Aldehyde">aldehyde</a> and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carboxylic_acid" title="Carboxylic acid">carboxylic acid</a> derivatives.<sup id="cite_ref-72" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethanol#cite_note-72" title="">[73]</a></sup></p> <p><a name="Other_uses" id="Other_uses"></a></p> <h3><span class="editsection">[<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ethanol&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: Other uses">edit</a>]</span> <span class="mw-headline">Other uses</span></h3> <ul><li>Ethanol is easily <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Miscible" class="mw-redirect" title="Miscible">miscible</a> in <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Water_%28molecule%29" title="Water (molecule)">water</a> and is a good <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solvent" title="Solvent">solvent</a>. Ethanol is less polar than water and used in <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Perfume" title="Perfume">perfumes</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paint" title="Paint">paints</a> and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tincture" title="Tincture">tinctures</a>.</li><li>Ethanol is also used in design and sketch art markers, such as <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Copic" title="Copic">Copic</a>, and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tria" class="mw-redirect" title="Tria">Tria</a>.</li></ul> <p><a name="Effects_on_humans" id="Effects_on_humans"></a></p> <h2><span class="editsection"></span> <span class="mw-headline">Effects on humans</span></h2> <dl><dd> <div class="noprint relarticle mainarticle"><i>Main article: <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Short-term_effects_of_alcohol" title="Short-term effects of alcohol">Short-term effects of alcohol</a></i></div> </dd></dl> <p>The <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Institute_on_Alcohol_Abuse_and_Alcoholism" title="National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism">National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism</a> maintains a database of alcohol-related health effects. <sup id="cite_ref-73" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethanol#cite_note-73" title="">[74]</a></sup></p> <table class="wikitable" style="float: right; width: 25em; margin-left: 1em;"> <tbody><tr> <th>BAC (mg/dL)</th> <th>Symptoms<sup id="cite_ref-Pohorecky_.26_Brick_74-0" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethanol#cite_note-Pohorecky_.26_Brick-74" title="">[75]</a></sup></th> </tr> <tr> <td>50</td> <td>Euphoria, talkativeness, relaxation</td> </tr> <tr> <td>100</td> <td>Central nervous system depression, impaired motor and sensory function, impaired cognition</td> </tr> <tr> <td>> 140</td> <td>Decreased blood flow to brain</td> </tr> <tr> <td>300</td> <td>Stupefaction, possible unconsciousness</td> </tr> <tr> <td>400</td> <td>Possible death</td> </tr> <tr> <td>> 550</td> <td>Death</td> </tr> </tbody></table> <p><a name="Effects_on_the_central_nervous_system" id="Effects_on_the_central_nervous_system"></a></p> <h3><span class="editsection"></span> <span class="mw-headline">Effects on the central nervous system</span></h3> <p>Ethanol is a central nervous system depressant and has significant psychoactive effects in sublethal doses; for specifics, see <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Effects_of_alcohol_on_the_body#Effects_by_dose" class="mw-redirect" title="Effects of alcohol on the body">effects of alcohol on the body by dose</a>. Based on its abilities to change the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_consciousness" class="mw-redirect" title="Human consciousness">human consciousness</a>, ethanol is considered a <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Drug" title="Drug">drug</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-75" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethanol#cite_note-75" title="">[76]</a></sup> Death from ethyl alcohol consumption is possible when blood alcohol level reaches 0.4%. A blood level of 0.5% or more is commonly fatal. Levels of even less than 0.1% can cause <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intoxication" title="Intoxication">intoxication</a>, with unconsciousness often occurring at 0.3–0.4%.<sup id="cite_ref-yost_76-0" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethanol#cite_note-yost-76" title="">[77]</a></sup></p> <p>The amount of ethanol in the body is typically quantified by <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blood_alcohol_content" title="Blood alcohol content">blood alcohol content</a> (BAC), the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Milligram" class="mw-redirect" title="Milligram">milligrams</a> of ethanol per 100 <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Milliliter" class="mw-redirect" title="Milliliter">milliliters</a> of blood. The table at right summarizes the symptoms of ethanol consumption. Small doses of ethanol generally produce euphoria and relaxation; people experiencing these symptoms tend to become talkative and less inhibited, and may exhibit poor judgment. At higher dosages (BAC > 100 mg/dl), ethanol acts as a <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Central_nervous_system" title="Central nervous system">central nervous system</a> <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Depressant" title="Depressant">depressant</a>, producing at progressively higher dosages, impaired sensory and motor function, slowed cognition, stupefaction, unconsciousness, and possible death.</p> <p>In America, about half of the deaths in car accidents occur in alcohol-related crashes.<sup id="cite_ref-77" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethanol#cite_note-77" title="">[78]</a></sup> There is no completely safe level of alcohol for driving; the risk of a fatal <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Car_accident" title="Car accident">car accident</a> rises with the level of alcohol in the driver's blood.<sup id="cite_ref-78" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethanol#cite_note-78" title="">[79]</a></sup> However, most <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Drunk_driving" class="mw-redirect" title="Drunk driving">drunk driving</a> laws governing the acceptable levels in the blood while driving or operating heavy machinery set typical upper limits of blood alcohol content (BAC) between 0.05% to 0.08%.</p> <p><a name="Effects_on_metabolism" id="Effects_on_metabolism"></a></p> <h3><span class="editsection">[<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ethanol&action=edit&section=33" title="Edit section: Effects on metabolism">edit</a>]</span> <span class="mw-headline">Effects on metabolism</span></h3> <dl><dd> <div class="noprint relarticle mainarticle"><i>Main article: <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alcohol_metabolism" class="mw-redirect" title="Alcohol metabolism">Alcohol metabolism</a></i></div> </dd></dl> <p>Ethanol within the human body is converted into <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acetaldehyde" title="Acetaldehyde">acetaldehyde</a> by <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alcohol_dehydrogenase" title="Alcohol dehydrogenase">alcohol dehydrogenase</a> and then into <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acetic_acid" title="Acetic acid">acetic acid</a> by <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acetaldehyde_dehydrogenase" title="Acetaldehyde dehydrogenase">acetaldehyde dehydrogenase</a>. The product of the first step of this breakdown, acetaldehyde,<sup id="cite_ref-boggan1_79-0" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethanol#cite_note-boggan1-79" title="">[80]</a></sup> is more toxic than ethanol. Acetaldehyde is linked to most of the clinical effects of alcohol. It has been shown to increase the risk of developing cirrhosis of the liver,<sup id="cite_ref-boggan2_69-1" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethanol#cite_note-boggan2-69" title="">[70]</a></sup> multiple forms of cancer, and alcoholism.</p> <p><a name="Drug_interactions" id="Drug_interactions"></a></p> <h3><span class="editsection">[<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ethanol&action=edit&section=34" title="Edit section: Drug interactions">edit</a>]</span> <span class="mw-headline">Drug interactions</span></h3> <p>Ethanol can interact in harmful ways with a number of other drugs, including <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Barbiturate" title="Barbiturate">barbiturates</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benzodiazepine" title="Benzodiazepine">benzodiazepines</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Opioid" title="Opioid">opioids</a>, and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phenothiazine" title="Phenothiazine">phenothiazines</a><sup id="cite_ref-yost_76-1" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethanol#cite_note-yost-76" title="">[77]</a></sup></p> <p><a name="Magnitude_of_effects" id="Magnitude_of_effects"></a></p> <h3><span class="editsection">[<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ethanol&action=edit&section=35" title="Edit section: Magnitude of effects">edit</a>]</span> <span class="mw-headline">Magnitude of effects</span></h3> <p>Some individuals have less effective forms of one or both of the metabolizing enzymes, and can experience more severe symptoms from ethanol consumption than others. Conversely, those who have acquired ethanol <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Drug_tolerance" title="Drug tolerance">tolerance</a> have a greater quantity of these enzymes, and metabolize ethanol more rapidly.<sup id="cite_ref-80" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethanol#cite_note-80" title="">[81]</a></sup></p> <p><a name="Other_effects" id="Other_effects"></a></p> <h3><span class="editsection">[<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ethanol&action=edit&section=36" title="Edit section: Other effects">edit</a>]</span> <span class="mw-headline">Other effects</span></h3> <p>Frequent drinking of alcoholic beverages has been shown to be a major contributing factor in cases of elevated blood levels of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Triglycerides" class="mw-redirect" title="Triglycerides">triglycerides</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-81" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethanol#cite_note-81" title="">[82]</a></sup></p> <p>Ethanol is not a <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carcinogen" title="Carcinogen">carcinogen</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-msdsbj_82-0" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethanol#cite_note-msdsbj-82" title="">[83]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-aacr_83-0" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethanol#cite_note-aacr-83" title="">[84]</a></sup> but its effect on the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liver" title="Liver">liver</a> can contribute to <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Immune_suppression" class="mw-redirect" title="Immune suppression">immune suppression</a>. Consequently, consumption of alcoholic beverages can be an aggravating factor in cancers.</p>Administratorhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/08457535216173436628noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-5064508587627806524.post-90060620413479638062008-06-23T14:30:00.000-04:002008-06-24T09:35:01.553-04:00ACID RAIN<b><a href="http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/25336098/">Acid Rain</a> in the news.<br /><br />Acid rain</b> is <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rain" title="Rain">rain</a> or any other form of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Precipitation_%28meteorology%29" title="Precipitation (meteorology)">precipitation</a> that is unusually <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acid" title="Acid">acidic</a>. It has harmful effects on the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Environment_%28biophysical%29" title="Environment (biophysical)">environment</a> and on structures. Acid rain is mostly caused by emissions due to human activity of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sulfur" title="Sulfur">sulfur</a> and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nitrogen" title="Nitrogen">nitrogen</a> compounds which react in the atmosphere to produce acids. In recent years, many governments have introduced laws to reduce these emissions.<br /><br /><h2><span class="mw-headline">Definition</span></h2> <p>The term "acid rain" is commonly used to mean the deposition of acidic components in rain, snow, fog, dew, or dry particles. The more accurate term is "acid precipitation." Distilled water, which contains no carbon dioxide, has a neutral <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PH" title="PH">pH</a> of 7. Liquids with a pH less than 7 are acidic, and those with a pH greater than 7 are basic. "Clean" or unpolluted rain is slightly acidic, its pH being about 5.6, because carbon dioxide and water in the air react together to form carbonic acid, a weak acid.<sup id="cite_ref-0" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acid_rain#cite_note-0" title="">[1]</a></sup></p> <dl><dd><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Water" title="Water">H<sub>2</sub>O</a> (l) + <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbon_Dioxide" class="mw-redirect" title="Carbon Dioxide">CO<sub>2</sub></a> (g) → <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbonic_acid" title="Carbonic acid">H<sub>2</sub>CO<sub>3</sub></a> (aq)</dd></dl> <p>Carbonic acid then can ionize in water forming low concentrations of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydronium" title="Hydronium">hydronium</a> ions:</p> <dl><dd><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Water" title="Water">2H<sub>2</sub>O</a> (l) + <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbonic_acid" title="Carbonic acid">H<sub>2</sub>CO<sub>3</sub></a> (aq) <span class="Unicode">⇌</span> <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbonate" title="Carbonate">CO<sub>3</sub><sup>2-</sup></a> (aq) + 2H<sub>3</sub>O<sup>+</sup>(aq)</dd></dl> <p>The extra acidity in rain comes from the reaction of primary air pollutants, primarily sulfur oxides and nitrogen oxides, with water in the air to form strong acids (like sulfuric and nitric acid). The main sources of these pollutants are vehicles and industrial and power-generating plants.</p> <p><a name="History" id="History"></a></p> <h2><span class="mw-headline">History</span></h2> <p>Since the Industrial Revolution, emissions of sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxides to the atmosphere have increased.<sup id="cite_ref-NASA_Glossary_1-0" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acid_rain#cite_note-NASA_Glossary-1" title="">[2]</a></sup> Acid rain was first found in <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manchester" title="Manchester">Manchester</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/England" title="England">England</a>. In 1852, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Angus_Smith" title="Robert Angus Smith">Robert Angus Smith</a> found the relationship between acid rain and atmospheric pollution.<sup id="cite_ref-Seinfeld_1998_2-0" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acid_rain#cite_note-Seinfeld_1998-2" title="">[3]</a></sup> Though acid rain was discovered in 1852, it wasn't until the late 1960s that scientists began widely observing and studying the phenomenon. Canadian Harold Harvey was among the first to research a "dead" lake. Public awareness of acid rain in the U.S increased in the 1990s after the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_York_Times" class="mw-redirect" title="New York Times">New York Times</a> promulgated reports from the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hubbard_Brook_Experimental_Forest" title="Hubbard Brook Experimental Forest">Hubbard Brook Experimental Forest</a> in <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_Hampshire" title="New Hampshire">New Hampshire</a> of the myriad deleterious environmental effects demonstrated to result from it.<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acid_rain#cite_note-3" title="">[4]</a></sup></p> <p>Occasional pH readings of well below 2.4 (the acidity of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vinegar" title="Vinegar">vinegar</a>) have been reported in industrialized areas.<sup id="cite_ref-NASA_Glossary_1-1" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acid_rain#cite_note-NASA_Glossary-1" title="">[2]</a></sup> Industrial acid rain is a substantial problem in <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/People%27s_Republic_of_China" title="People's Republic of China">China</a><sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acid_rain#cite_note-4" title="">[5]</a></sup>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eastern_Europe" title="Eastern Europe">Eastern Europe</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russia" title="Russia">Russia</a> and areas down-wind from them. These areas all burn sulfur-containing coal to generate heat and electricity.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acid_rain#cite_note-5" title="">[6]</a></sup> The problem of acid rain not only has increased with population and industrial growth, but has become more widespread. The use of tall smokestacks to reduce local <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pollution" title="Pollution">pollution</a> has contributed to the spread of acid rain by releasing gases into regional atmospheric circulation. Often deposition occurs a considerable distance downwind of the emissions, with mountainous regions tending to receive the most (simply because of their higher rainfall). An example of this effect is the low pH of rain (compared to the local emissions) which falls in <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scandinavia" title="Scandinavia">Scandinavia</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acid_rain#cite_note-6" title="">[7]</a></sup></p> <p><a name="Emissions_of_chemicals_leading_to_acidification" id="Emissions_of_chemicals_leading_to_acidification"></a></p> <h2><span class="mw-headline">Emissions of chemicals leading to acidification</span></h2> <p>The most important gas which leads to acidification is sulfur dioxide. Emissions of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nitrogen_oxide" title="Nitrogen oxide">nitrogen oxides</a> which are oxidized to form <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nitric_acid" title="Nitric acid">nitric acid</a> are of increasing importance due to stricter controls on emissions of sulfur containing compounds. 70 Tg(S) per year in the form of SO<sub>2</sub> comes from <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fossil_fuel" title="Fossil fuel">fossil fuel</a> combustion and industry, 2.8 Tg(S) from <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wildfires" class="mw-redirect" title="Wildfires">wildfires</a> and 7-8 Tg(S) per year from <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Volcanoes" class="mw-redirect" title="Volcanoes">volcanoes</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Berresheim_1995_7-0" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acid_rain#cite_note-Berresheim_1995-7" title="">[8]</a></sup></p> <p><a name="Natural_Phenomena" id="Natural_Phenomena"></a></p> <h3><span class="mw-headline">Natural Phenomena</span></h3> <p>The principal natural <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phenomena" class="mw-redirect" title="Phenomena">phenomena</a> that contribute acid-producing gases to the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earth%27s_atmosphere" title="Earth's atmosphere">atmosphere</a> are emissions from <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Volcano" title="Volcano">volcanoes</a> and those from <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biology" title="Biology">biological</a> processes that occur on the land, in <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wetland" title="Wetland">wetlands</a>, and in the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ocean" title="Ocean">oceans</a>. The major biological source of sulfur containing compounds is <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dimethyl_sulfide" title="Dimethyl sulfide">dimethyl sulfide</a>.</p> <p>The effects of acidic deposits have been detected in <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glacier" title="Glacier">glacial ice</a> thousands of years old in remote parts of the globe.</p> <p><a name="Human_activity" id="Human_activity"></a></p> <h3><span class="mw-headline">Human activity</span></h3> <div class="thumb tright"> <div class="thumbinner" style="width: 182px;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Gavin_Plant.JPG" class="image" title="The coal-fired Gavin power plant in Cheshire, Ohio"><img alt="The coal-fired Gavin power plant in Cheshire, Ohio" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/75/Gavin_Plant.JPG/180px-Gavin_Plant.JPG" class="thumbimage" width="180" border="0" height="135" /></a> <div class="thumbcaption"> <div class="magnify"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Gavin_Plant.JPG" class="internal" title="Enlarge"><img src="http://en.wikipedia.org/skins-1.5/common/images/magnify-clip.png" alt="" width="15" height="11" /></a></div> The coal-fired Gavin power plant in <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cheshire%2C_Ohio" title="Cheshire, Ohio">Cheshire, Ohio</a></div> </div> </div> <p>The principal cause of acid rain is sulfur and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nitrogen" title="Nitrogen">nitrogen</a> compounds from human sources, such as <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electricity_generation" title="Electricity generation">electricity generation</a>, factories and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Motor_vehicle" title="Motor vehicle">motor vehicles</a>. Coal power plants are one of the most polluting. The gases can be carried hundreds of kilometres in the atmosphere before they are converted to acids and deposited. In the past, factories had short funnels to let out smoke, but this caused many problems; thus, factories now have longer smoke funnels. However, this causes pollutants to be carried farther, causing greater ecological damage.</p> <p><br /></p> <p><a name="Chemical_processes" id="Chemical_processes"></a></p> <h2><span class="mw-headline">Chemical processes</span></h2> <p><a name="Gas_phase_chemistry" id="Gas_phase_chemistry"></a></p> <h3><span class="mw-headline">Gas phase chemistry</span></h3> <p>In the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gas_phase" class="mw-redirect" title="Gas phase">gas phase</a> sulfur dioxide is oxidized by reaction with the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydroxyl" title="Hydroxyl">hydroxyl</a> radical via a <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intermolecular" class="mw-redirect" title="Intermolecular">intermolecular</a> reaction:</p> <dl><dd>SO<sub>2</sub> + OH· → HOSO<sub>2</sub>·</dd></dl> <p>which is followed by:</p> <dl><dd>HOSO<sub>2</sub>· + O<sub>2</sub> → HO<sub>2</sub>· + SO<sub>3</sub></dd></dl> <p>In the presence of water <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sulfur_trioxide" title="Sulfur trioxide">sulfur trioxide</a> (SO<sub>3</sub>) is converted rapidly to <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sulfuric_acid" title="Sulfuric acid">sulfuric acid</a>:</p> <dl><dd>SO<sub>3</sub>(g) + H<sub>2</sub>O(l) → H<sub>2</sub>SO<sub>4</sub>(l)</dd></dl> <p><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nitric_acid" title="Nitric acid">Nitric acid</a> is formed by the reaction of OH with <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nitrogen_dioxide" title="Nitrogen dioxide">Nitrogen dioxide</a>:</p> <dl><dd>NO<sub>2</sub> + OH· → HNO<sub>3</sub></dd></dl> <p>For more information see Seinfeld and Pandis (1998).<sup id="cite_ref-Seinfeld_1998_2-1" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acid_rain#cite_note-Seinfeld_1998-2" title="">[3]</a></sup></p> <p><a name="Chemistry_in_cloud_droplets" id="Chemistry_in_cloud_droplets"></a></p> <h3><span class="mw-headline">Chemistry in cloud droplets</span></h3> <p>When clouds are present the loss rate of SO<sub>2</sub> is faster than can be explained by gas phase chemistry alone. This is due to reactions in the liquid water droplets</p> <dl><dt>Hydrolysis</dt></dl> <p>Sulfur dioxide dissolves in water and then, like carbon dioxide, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydrolysis" title="Hydrolysis">hydrolyses</a> in a series of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chemical_equilibrium" title="Chemical equilibrium">equilibrium</a> reactions:</p> <dl><dd>SO<sub>2</sub> (g)+ H<sub>2</sub>O <span class="Unicode">⇌</span> SO<sub>2</sub>·H<sub>2</sub>O</dd><dd>SO<sub>2</sub>·H<sub>2</sub>O <span class="Unicode">⇌</span> H<sup>+</sup>+HSO<sub>3</sub><sup>-</sup></dd><dd>HSO<sub>3</sub><sup>-</sup> <span class="Unicode">⇌</span> H<sup>+</sup>+SO<sub>3</sub><sup>2-</sup></dd></dl> <dl><dt>Oxidation</dt></dl> <p>There are a large number of aqueous reactions that <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Redox" title="Redox">oxidize</a> sulfur from S(<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oxidation_state" title="Oxidation state">IV</a>) to S(VI), leading to the formation of sulfuric acid. The most important oxidation reactions are with <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ozone" title="Ozone">ozone</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydrogen_peroxide" title="Hydrogen peroxide">hydrogen peroxide</a> and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oxygen" title="Oxygen">oxygen</a> (reactions with oxygen are catalyzed by <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iron" title="Iron">iron</a> and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manganese" title="Manganese">manganese</a> in the cloud droplets).</p> <p>For more information see Seinfeld and Pandis (1998).<sup id="cite_ref-Seinfeld_1998_2-2" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acid_rain#cite_note-Seinfeld_1998-2" title="">[3]</a></sup></p> <p><br /></p> <p><a name="Acid_deposition" id="Acid_deposition"></a></p> <h2><span class="mw-headline">Acid deposition</span></h2> <div class="thumb tright"> <div class="thumbinner" style="width: 182px;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Origins.gif" class="image" title="Processes involved in acid deposition (note that only SO2 and NOx play a significant role in acid rain)."><img alt="Processes involved in acid deposition (note that only SO2 and NOx play a significant role in acid rain)." src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/9f/Origins.gif/180px-Origins.gif" class="thumbimage" width="180" border="0" height="121" /></a> <div class="thumbcaption"> <div class="magnify"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Origins.gif" class="internal" title="Enlarge"><img src="http://en.wikipedia.org/skins-1.5/common/images/magnify-clip.png" alt="" width="15" height="11" /></a></div> Processes involved in acid deposition (note that only SO<sub>2</sub> and NO<sub>x</sub> play a significant role in acid rain).</div> </div> </div> <p><a name="Wet_deposition" id="Wet_deposition"></a></p> <h3><span class="mw-headline">Wet deposition</span></h3> <p>Wet deposition of acids occurs when any form of precipitation (rain, snow, etc) removes acids from the atmosphere and delivers it to the Earth's surface. This can result from the deposition of acids produced in the raindrops (see aqueous phase chemistry above) or by the precipitation removing the acids either in clouds or below clouds. Wet removal of both gases and aerosol are both of importance for wet deposition.</p> <p><a name="Dry_deposition" id="Dry_deposition"></a></p> <h3><span class="mw-headline">Dry deposition</span></h3> <p>Acid deposition also occurs via dry deposition in the absence of precipitation. This can be responsible for as much as 20 to 60% of total acid deposition.<sup id="cite_ref-archive_glossary_8-0" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acid_rain#cite_note-archive_glossary-8" title="">[9]</a></sup> This occurs when particles and gases stick to the ground, plants or other surfaces.</p> <p><a name="Adverse_effects" id="Adverse_effects"></a></p> <h2><span class="mw-headline">Adverse effects</span></h2> <div class="thumb tright"> <div class="thumbinner" style="width: 182px;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Waterspecies.gif" class="image" title="This chart shows that not all fish, shellfish, or the insects that they eat can tolerate the same amount of acid; for example, frogs can tolerate water that is more acidic (i.e., has a lower pH) than trout."><img alt="This chart shows that not all fish, shellfish, or the insects that they eat can tolerate the same amount of acid; for example, frogs can tolerate water that is more acidic (i.e., has a lower pH) than trout." src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/83/Waterspecies.gif/180px-Waterspecies.gif" class="thumbimage" width="180" border="0" height="117" /></a> <div class="thumbcaption"> <div class="magnify"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Waterspecies.gif" class="internal" title="Enlarge"><img src="http://en.wikipedia.org/skins-1.5/common/images/magnify-clip.png" alt="" width="15" height="11" /></a></div> This chart shows that not all fish, shellfish, or the insects that they eat can tolerate the same amount of acid; for example, frogs can tolerate water that is more acidic (i.e., has a lower pH) than trout.</div> </div> </div> <p>Acid rain has been shown to have adverse impacts on forests, freshwaters and soils, killing off insect and aquatic lifeforms as well as causing damage to buildings and having possible impacts on human health.</p> <p><a name="Surface_waters_and_aquatic_animals" id="Surface_waters_and_aquatic_animals"></a></p> <h3><span class="mw-headline">Surface waters and aquatic animals</span></h3> <p>Both the lower pH and higher aluminum concentrations in surface water that occur as a result of acid rain can cause damage to fish and other aquatic animals. At pHs lower than 5 most fish eggs will not hatch and lower pHs can kill adult fish. As lakes become more acidic biodiversity is reduced. Acid rain has eliminated insect life and some fish species, including the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brook_trout" title="Brook trout">brook trout</a> in some Appalachian streams and creeks.<sup id="cite_ref-EPA_9-0" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acid_rain#cite_note-EPA-9" title="">[10]</a></sup> However, there has been some debate on the extent to which acid rain contributes to lake acidity (i.e., that many acid lakes may result primarily from characteristics of the surrounding watershed, and not the rain itself).<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acid_rain#cite_note-10" title="">[11]</a></sup> The <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/EPA" class="mw-redirect" title="EPA">EPA's</a> website states: <i>"Of the lakes and streams surveyed, acid rain caused acidity in 75 percent of the acidic lakes and about 50 percent of the acidic streams"</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-EPA_9-1" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acid_rain#cite_note-EPA-9" title="">[10]</a></sup></p> <p><a name="Soils" id="Soils"></a></p> <h3><span class="mw-headline">Soils</span></h3> <p><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soil#Biological_processes_in_soil" title="Soil">Soil biology</a> can be seriously damaged by acid rain. Some tropical <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microbes" class="mw-redirect" title="Microbes">microbes</a> can quickly consume acids<sup id="cite_ref-Rodhe_2005_11-0" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acid_rain#cite_note-Rodhe_2005-11" title="">[12]</a></sup> but other microbes are unable to tolerate low pHs and are killed. The <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enzymes" class="mw-redirect" title="Enzymes">enzymes</a> of these microbes are <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Denaturation_%28biochemistry%29" title="Denaturation (biochemistry)">denatured</a> (changed in shape so they no longer function) by the acid. The hydronium ions of acid rain also mobilize <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Toxin" title="Toxin">toxins</a> and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leaching" title="Leaching">leach</a> away essential nutrients and minerals<sup id="cite_ref-EPA:_Forests_12-0" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acid_rain#cite_note-EPA:_Forests-12" title="">[13]</a></sup></p> <dl><dd>2<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydronium" title="Hydronium">H</a><sup>+</sup> (aq)+ <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magnesium" title="Magnesium">Mg</a><sup>2+</sup> (clay)<span class="Unicode">⇌</span> 2H<sup>+</sup> (clay)+ Mg<sup>2+</sup>(aq)</dd></dl> <p><a name="Forests_and_other_vegetation" id="Forests_and_other_vegetation"></a></p> <h3><span class="mw-headline">Forests and other vegetation</span></h3> <div class="thumb tright"> <div class="thumbinner" style="width: 182px;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Acid_rain_woods1.JPG" class="image" title="Effect of acid rain on a forest, Jizera Mountains, Czech Republic"><img alt="Effect of acid rain on a forest, Jizera Mountains, Czech Republic" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Acid_rain_woods1.JPG/180px-Acid_rain_woods1.JPG" class="thumbimage" width="180" border="0" height="135" /></a> <div class="thumbcaption"> <div class="magnify"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Acid_rain_woods1.JPG" class="internal" title="Enlarge"><img src="http://en.wikipedia.org/skins-1.5/common/images/magnify-clip.png" alt="" width="15" height="11" /></a></div> Effect of acid rain on a forest, Jizera Mountains, Czech Republic</div> </div> </div> <p>Adverse effects may be indirectly related to acid rain, like the acid's effects on soil (see above) or high concentration of gaseous precursors to acid rain. High altitude forests are especially vulnerable as they are often surrounded by clouds and fog which are more acidic than rain.</p> <p>Other plants can also be damaged by acid rain but the effect on food crops is minimized by the application of fertilizers to replace lost nutrients. In cultivated areas, limestone may also be added to increase the ability of the soil to keep the pH stable, but this tactic is largely unusable in the case of wilderness lands. Acid rain depletes minerals from the soil and then it stunts the growth of the plant.</p> <p><a name="Human_health" id="Human_health"></a></p> <h3><span class="mw-headline">Human health</span></h3> <p>Some scientists have suggested direct links to human health, but none have been proven.<sup id="cite_ref-acidrain_intro_13-0" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acid_rain#cite_note-acidrain_intro-13" title="">[14]</a></sup>. However, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Particulate" title="Particulate">fine particles</a>, a large fraction of which are formed from the same gases as acid rain (sulfur dioxide and nitrogen dioxide), have been shown to cause illness and premature deaths such as cancer and other deadly diseases<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acid_rain#cite_note-14" title="">[15]</a></sup> For more information on the health effects of aerosol see <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Particulate#Health_effects" title="Particulate">particulate health effects</a>.</p> <p><a name="Other_adverse_effects" id="Other_adverse_effects"></a></p> <h3><span class="mw-headline">Other adverse effects</span></h3> <div class="thumb tright"> <div class="thumbinner" style="width: 182px;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Pollution_-_Damaged_by_acid_rain.jpg" class="image" title="Effect of acid rain on statues"><img alt="Effect of acid rain on statues" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/Pollution_-_Damaged_by_acid_rain.jpg/180px-Pollution_-_Damaged_by_acid_rain.jpg" class="thumbimage" width="180" border="0" height="120" /></a> <div class="thumbcaption"> <div class="magnify"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Pollution_-_Damaged_by_acid_rain.jpg" class="internal" title="Enlarge"><img src="http://en.wikipedia.org/skins-1.5/common/images/magnify-clip.png" alt="" width="15" height="11" /></a></div> Effect of acid rain on statues</div> </div> </div> <p>Acid rain can also cause damage to certain building materials and historical monuments. This is since the sulfuric acid in the rain chemically reacts with the calcium compounds in the stones (limestone, sandstone, marble and granite) to create gypsum, which then flakes off.</p> <dl><dd>CaCO<sub>3</sub> (s) + H<sub>2</sub>SO<sub>4</sub> (aq) <span class="Unicode">⇌</span> CaSO<sub>4</sub> (aq) + CO<sub>2</sub> (g) + H<sub>2</sub>O (l)</dd></dl> <p>This is also commonly seen on old gravestones where the acid rain can cause the inscription to become completely illegible. Acid rain also causes an increased rate of oxidation for iron.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acid_rain#cite_note-15" title="">[16]</a></sup> Visibility is also reduced by sulfate and nitrate in the atmosphere.<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acid_rain#cite_note-16" title="">[17]</a></sup></p> <p><a name="Affected_areas" id="Affected_areas"></a></p> <h2><span class="mw-headline">Affected areas</span></h2> <p>Particularly badly affected places around the globe include most of Europe (particularly <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scandinavia" title="Scandinavia">Scandinavia</a> with many lakes with acidic water containing no life and many trees dead) many parts of the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States" title="United States">United States</a> (states like <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_York" title="New York">New York</a> are very badly affected) and South Western <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canada" title="Canada">Canada</a>. Other affected areas include the South Eastern coast of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/China" title="China">China</a> and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taiwan" title="Taiwan">Taiwan</a>.</p> <p><a name="Potential_problem_areas_in_the_future" id="Potential_problem_areas_in_the_future"></a></p> <h3><span class="mw-headline">Potential problem areas in the future</span></h3> <p>Places like much of South Asia (<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indonesia" title="Indonesia">Indonesia</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malaysia" title="Malaysia">Malaysia</a> and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thailand" title="Thailand">Thailand</a>), Western <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/South_Africa" title="South Africa">South Africa</a> (the country), Southern <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India" title="India">India</a> and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sri_Lanka" title="Sri Lanka">Sri Lanka</a> and even West Africa (countries like <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ghana" title="Ghana">Ghana</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Togo" title="Togo">Togo</a>] and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nigeria" title="Nigeria">Nigeria</a>) could all be prone to acidic rainfall in the future.</p> <p><a name="Prevention_methods" id="Prevention_methods"></a></p> <h2><span class="mw-headline">Prevention methods</span></h2> <p><a name="Technical_solutions" id="Technical_solutions"></a></p> <h3><span class="mw-headline">Technical solutions</span></h3> <p>In the United States, many coal-burning <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Power_plant" class="mw-redirect" title="Power plant">power plants</a> use <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flue_gas_desulfurization" title="Flue gas desulfurization">Flue gas desulfurization</a> (FGD) to remove sulfur-containing gases from their stack gases. An example of FGD is the wet scrubber which is commonly used in the U.S. and many other countries. A wet scrubber is basically a reaction tower equipped with a fan that extracts hot smoke stack gases from a power plant into the tower. Lime or limestone in slurry form is also injected into the tower to mix with the stack gases and combine with the sulfur dioxide present. The calcium carbonate of the limestone produces pH-neutral calcium sulfate that is physically removed from the scrubber. That is, the scrubber turns sulfur pollution into industrial sulfates.</p> <p>In some areas the sulfates are sold to chemical companies as <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gypsum" title="Gypsum">gypsum</a> when the purity of calcium sulfate is high. In others, they are placed in <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Landfill" title="Landfill">landfill</a>. However, the effects of acid rain can last for generations, as the effects of pH level change can stimulate the continued leaching of undesirable chemicals into otherwise pristine water sources, killing off vulnerable insect and fish species and blocking efforts to <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Restoration_ecology" title="Restoration ecology">restore</a> native life.</p> <p><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Automobile_emissions_control" title="Automobile emissions control">Automobile emissions control</a> reduces emissions of nitrogen oxides from motor vehicles.</p> <p><a name="International_treaties" id="International_treaties"></a></p> <h3><span class="mw-headline">International treaties</span></h3> <p>A number of international treaties on the long range transport of atmospheric pollutants have been agreed e.g. <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sulphur_Emissions_Reduction_Protocol" title="Sulphur Emissions Reduction Protocol">Sulphur Emissions Reduction Protocol</a> under the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Convention_on_Long-Range_Transboundary_Air_Pollution" title="Convention on Long-Range Transboundary Air Pollution">Convention on Long-Range Transboundary Air Pollution</a>.</p> <p><a name="Emissions_trading" id="Emissions_trading"></a></p> <h3><span class="mw-headline">Emissions trading</span></h3> <p>A more recent regulatory scheme involves <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emissions_trading" title="Emissions trading">emissions trading</a>. In this scheme, every current polluting facility is given an emissions license that becomes part of capital equipment. Operators can then install pollution control equipment, and sell parts of their emissions licenses. The intention of this is to give operators economic incentives to install pollution controls.</p>Administratorhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/08457535216173436628noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-5064508587627806524.post-26809910993370698132008-06-23T14:27:00.000-04:002008-06-24T09:38:20.467-04:00FOREWICK HOLM ISLAND<p><b><a href="http://www.guardian.co.uk/uk/2008/jun/19/scotland.britishidentity?gusrc=rss&feed=politics">Forewick Holm</a> in the news.<br /></b></p><p><b>Forewick Holm</b> or <b>Forvik</b> is a 1 hectare (2.5 acre) island in the Sound of Papa in the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shetland" title="Shetland">Shetland</a> islands, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scotland" title="Scotland">Scotland</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Smith_1-1" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Forvik#cite_note-Smith-1" title="">[2]</a></sup> Located between <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Papa_Stour" title="Papa Stour">Papa Stour</a> and the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sandness" title="Sandness">Sandness</a> peninsula the islet is owned by Stuart Hill, (aka "Captain Calamity") a retired yachtsman from England. The name <i>Forvik</i> is Hill's invention.<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Forvik#cite_note-3" title="">[4]</a></sup></p> <p>In June 2008, Hill, the island's only resident, declared independence for himself and the island where he lives in a tent. He claimed this on the basis of a marriage arrangement between <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christian_I_of_Denmark" title="Christian I of Denmark">King Christian</a> of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Norway" title="Norway">Norway</a> and the Scottish <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_III_of_Scotland" title="James III of Scotland">King James III</a> that dates to 1468. He announced that the island has broken away from the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Kingdom" title="United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a>, quit the EU and become a <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crown_dependency" class="mw-redirect" title="Crown dependency">crown dependency</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Forvik#cite_note-4" title="">[5]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Forvik#cite_note-5" title="">[6]</a></sup></p> <p><i><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Holm" title="Holm">Holm</a></i> is a common name in the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orkney" title="Orkney">Orkney</a> and Shetland islands for a small, flat, rounded island. <i>Wick</i> is an anglicisation of <i>vik</i>, a <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Norse" title="Norse">Norse</a> word for <i>bay</i>. A small islet called Scarf's Head is accessible from Forewick Holm at low tide.<sup id="cite_ref-OS_2-1" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Forvik#cite_note-OS-2" title="">[3]</a></sup></p>Administratorhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/08457535216173436628noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-5064508587627806524.post-59864609146976664802008-06-23T14:10:00.000-04:002008-06-23T14:15:19.799-04:00George Carlin<p><b>George Denis Patrick Carlin</b><sup id="cite_ref-filmr_15-0" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_Carlin#cite_note-filmr-15" title="">[16]</a></sup> (<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/May_12" title="May 12">May 12</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1937" title="1937">1937</a> – <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/June_22" title="June 22">June 22</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2008" title="2008">2008</a>)<sup id="cite_ref-obit1_16-0" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_Carlin#cite_note-obit1-16" title="">[17]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_Carlin#cite_note-17" title="">[18]</a></sup> was a <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grammy_Award" title="Grammy Award">Grammy</a>-winning American <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stand-up_comedy" title="Stand-up comedy">stand-up comedian</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Actor" title="Actor">actor</a>, and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Author" title="Author">author</a>.</p> <p>Carlin was especially noted for his <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Politics" title="Politics">political</a> and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Black_humor" class="mw-redirect" title="Black humor">black humor</a> and his observations on language, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychology" title="Psychology">psychology</a>, and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Religion" title="Religion">religion</a> along with many <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taboo" title="Taboo">taboo</a> subjects. Carlin and his "<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seven_dirty_words" title="Seven dirty words">Seven Dirty Words</a>" comedy routine were central to the 1978 <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States" title="Supreme Court of the United States">U.S. Supreme Court</a> case <i><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/F.C.C._v._Pacifica_Foundation" class="mw-redirect" title="F.C.C. v. Pacifica Foundation">F.C.C. v. Pacifica Foundation</a></i>, in which a narrow 5-4 decision by the justices affirmed the government's right to regulate Carlin's act on the public <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radio_waves" title="Radio waves">airwaves</a>.</p> <p>Carlin's most recent stand-up routines focused on the flaws in modern-day America. He often took on contemporary political issues in the United States and satirized the excesses of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_culture" class="mw-redirect" title="American culture">American culture</a>.</p> <p>He placed second on the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comedy_Central" title="Comedy Central">Comedy Central</a> <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cable_television" title="Cable television">cable television</a> <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/TV_network" class="mw-redirect" title="TV network">network</a> list of the 10 greatest stand-up comedians, ahead of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lenny_Bruce" title="Lenny Bruce">Lenny Bruce</a> and behind <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_Pryor" title="Richard Pryor">Richard Pryor</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_Carlin#cite_note-18" title="">[19]</a></sup> He was a frequent performer and guest host on <i><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Tonight_Show" title="The Tonight Show">The Tonight Show</a></i> during the three-decade <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johnny_Carson" title="Johnny Carson">Johnny Carson</a> era, and was also the first person to host <i><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saturday_Night_Live" title="Saturday Night Live">Saturday Night Live</a></i>.</p><p><br /></p><h2><span class="mw-headline">Early life and career</span></h2> <p>Carlin was born in <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_York_City" title="New York City">New York City</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_Carlin#cite_note-19" title="">[20]</a></sup> the son of Mary (<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Married_and_maiden_names" title="Married and maiden names">née</a> Bearey), a secretary, and Patrick Carlin, a national advertising manager for the <i><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_York_Sun_%28historical%29" class="mw-redirect" title="New York Sun (historical)">New York Sun</a></i>.<sup id="cite_ref-filmr_15-1" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_Carlin#cite_note-filmr-15" title="">[16]</a></sup> Carlin was of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_people" title="Irish people">Irish</a> descent and was raised in the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roman_Catholic" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman Catholic">Roman Catholic</a> faith.<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_Carlin#cite_note-20" title="">[21]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_Carlin#cite_note-21" title="">[22]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_Carlin#cite_note-22" title="">[23]</a></sup></p> <p>Carlin grew up on West 121st Street, in a neighborhood of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manhattan" title="Manhattan">Manhattan</a> which he later said, in a stand-up routine, he and his friends called "White <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harlem" title="Harlem">Harlem</a>", because that sounded a lot tougher than its real name of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Morningside_Heights" class="mw-redirect" title="Morningside Heights">Morningside Heights</a>. He was raised by his mother, who left his father when Carlin was two years old. At age 14 Carlin dropped out of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cardinal_Hayes_High_School" title="Cardinal Hayes High School">Cardinal Hayes High School</a> and later joined the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Air_Force" title="United States Air Force">United States Air Force</a>, training as a <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radar" title="Radar">radar</a> technician. He was stationed at <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Barksdale_AFB" class="mw-redirect" title="Barksdale AFB">Barksdale AFB</a> in <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bossier_City%2C_Louisiana" title="Bossier City, Louisiana">Bossier City, Louisiana</a>.</p> <p>During this time he began working as a <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Disc_jockey" title="Disc jockey">disc jockey</a> on KJOE, a radio station based in the nearby city of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shreveport" class="mw-redirect" title="Shreveport">Shreveport</a>. He did not complete his Air Force enlistment. Labeled an "unproductive airman" by his superiors, Carlin was discharged on <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/July_29" title="July 29">July 29</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1957" title="1957">1957</a>. In 1959, Carlin and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jack_Burns" title="Jack Burns">Jack Burns</a> began as a comedy team when both were working for radio station <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/KXOL" title="KXOL">KXOL</a> in <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fort_Worth%2C_Texas" title="Fort Worth, Texas">Fort Worth, Texas</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_Carlin#cite_note-23" title="">[24]</a></sup> After successful performances at Fort Worth's beat coffeehouse, The Cellar, Burns and Carlin headed for California in February 1960 and stayed together for two years as a team before moving on to individual pursuits.</p> <p><a name="1960s"></a></p> <h3><span class="mw-headline">1960s</span></h3> <p>In the 1960s, Carlin began appearing on television variety shows, notably <i><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Ed_Sullivan_Show" title="The Ed Sullivan Show">The Ed Sullivan Show</a></i>. His most famous routines were:</p> <ul><li>The Indian Sergeant ("You wit' the beads... get outta line")</li><li>Stupid disc jockeys ("Wonderful WINO...") — "The Beatles' latest record, when played backwards at slow speed, says 'Dummy! You're playing it backwards at slow speed!'"</li><li>Al Sleet, the "<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hippie" title="Hippie">hippie</a>-dippie <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Weather_forecasting" title="Weather forecasting">weatherman</a>" — "Tonight's forecast: Dark. Continued dark throughout most of the evening, with some widely-scattered light towards morning."</li><li>Jon Carson — the "world never known, and never to be known"</li></ul> <p>Variations on the first three of these routines appear on Carlin's 1967 debut album, <i><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Take_Offs_and_Put_Ons" class="mw-redirect" title="Take Offs and Put Ons">Take Offs and Put Ons</a></i>, recorded live in 1966 at The Roostertail in <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Detroit%2C_Michigan" title="Detroit, Michigan">Detroit</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michigan" title="Michigan">Michigan</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_Carlin#cite_note-24" title="">[25]</a></sup></p> <p>During this period, Carlin became more popular as a frequent performer and guest host on <i><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Tonight_Show" title="The Tonight Show">The Tonight Show</a></i> during the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johnny_Carson" title="Johnny Carson">Johnny Carson</a> era, becoming one of Carson's most frequent substitutes during the host's three-decade reign. Carlin was also cast on <i>Away We Go</i>, a 1967 comedy show.</p> <p>Carlin was present at <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lenny_Bruce" title="Lenny Bruce">Lenny Bruce's</a> arrest for obscenity. According to legend the police began attempting to detain members of the audience for questioning, and asked Carlin for his identification. Telling the police he did not believe in government issued IDs, he was arrested and taken to jail with Bruce in the same vehicle.<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_Carlin#cite_note-25" title="">[26]</a></sup></p> <p><a name="1970s"></a></p> <h3><span class="mw-headline">1970s</span></h3> <div class="thumb tleft"> <div class="thumbinner" style="width: 182px;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Georgecarlinmugshot.jpg" class="image" title="George Carlin's 1972 arrest photograph."><img alt="George Carlin's 1972 arrest photograph." src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e4/Georgecarlinmugshot.jpg/180px-Georgecarlinmugshot.jpg" class="thumbimage" width="180" border="0" height="144" /></a> <div class="thumbcaption"> <div class="magnify"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Georgecarlinmugshot.jpg" class="internal" title="Enlarge"><img src="http://en.wikipedia.org/skins-1.5/common/images/magnify-clip.png" alt="" width="15" height="11" /></a></div> George Carlin's 1972 arrest photograph.</div> </div> </div> <p>Eventually, Carlin changed both his routines and his appearance. He lost some TV bookings by dressing strangely for a comedian of the time, wearing faded jeans and sporting a beard and earrings at a time when clean-cut, well-dressed comedians were in vogue. Using his own persona as a springboard for his new comedy, he was presented by <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ed_Sullivan" title="Ed Sullivan">Ed Sullivan</a> in a performance of "The Hair Piece," and quickly regained his popularity as the public caught on to his sense of style.</p> <p>In this period he also perfected what is perhaps his best-known routine, "<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seven_dirty_words" title="Seven dirty words">Seven Words You Can Never Say on Television</a>", recorded on <i><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Class_Clown" title="Class Clown">Class Clown</a></i>. Carlin was arrested on <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/July_21" title="July 21">July 21</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1972" title="1972">1972</a> at <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Milwaukee%2C_Wisconsin" title="Milwaukee, Wisconsin">Milwaukee's</a> <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Summerfest" title="Summerfest">Summerfest</a> and charged with violating <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Obscenity" title="Obscenity">obscenity</a> laws after performing this routine.<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_Carlin#cite_note-26" title="">[27]</a></sup> The case, which prompted Carlin to refer to the words for a time as, "The Milwaukee Seven", was dismissed in December of that year; the judge declared the language indecent, stating that the language was indecent but cited free speech, as well as the lack of any disturbance. In 1973, a man complained to the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Federal_Communications_Commission" title="Federal Communications Commission">FCC</a> that his son had heard a later, similar routine, "Filthy Words", from <i><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Occupation:_Foole" title="Occupation: Foole">Occupation: Foole</a></i>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Broadcasting" title="Broadcasting">broadcast</a> one afternoon over <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/WBAI" title="WBAI">WBAI</a>, a <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pacifica_Foundation" class="mw-redirect" title="Pacifica Foundation">Pacifica Foundation</a> <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frequency_modulation" title="Frequency modulation">FM</a> <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radio_station" class="mw-redirect" title="Radio station">radio station</a> in <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_York_City" title="New York City">New York City</a>. Pacifica received a citation from the FCC, which sought to fine Pacifica for allegedly violating FCC regulations which prohibited broadcasting "obscene" material. The <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States" title="Supreme Court of the United States">U.S. Supreme Court</a> upheld the FCC action, by a vote of 5 to 4, ruling that the routine was "indecent but not obscene", and the FCC had authority to prohibit such broadcasts during hours when children were likely to be among the audience. <i><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/F.C.C._v._Pacifica_Foundation" class="mw-redirect" title="F.C.C. v. Pacifica Foundation">F.C.C. v. Pacifica Foundation</a></i>, 438 U.S. 726 (1978). The court documents contain a complete transcript of the routine.<sup id="cite_ref-EFF_27-0" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_Carlin#cite_note-EFF-27" title="">[28]</a></sup></p> <p>The controversy only increased Carlin's fame (or notoriety). Carlin eventually expanded the dirty-words theme with a seemingly interminable end to a performance (ending with his voice fading out in one <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Home_Box_Office" title="Home Box Office">HBO</a> version, and accompanying the credits in the <i><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carlin_at_Carnegie" class="mw-redirect" title="Carlin at Carnegie">Carlin at Carnegie</a></i> special for the 1982-83 season), and a set of 49 web pages<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_Carlin#cite_note-28" title="">[29]</a></sup> organized by subject and embracing his "Incomplete List Of Impolite Words".</p> <p>Carlin was the first-ever host of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NBC" title="NBC">NBC's</a> <i><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saturday_Night_Live" title="Saturday Night Live">Saturday Night Live</a></i>, debuting on <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/October_11" title="October 11">October 11</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1975" title="1975">1975</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_Carlin#cite_note-29" title="">[30]</a></sup> (He also hosted <i>SNL</i> on <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/November_10" title="November 10">November 10</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1984" title="1984">1984</a>, where he actually appeared in sketches. The first time he hosted, he only appeared to perform stand-up and introduce the guest acts.) The following season, 1976-77, Carlin also appeared regularly on <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CBS" title="CBS">CBS</a> Television's <i><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tony_Orlando_%26_Dawn" class="mw-redirect" title="Tony Orlando & Dawn">Tony Orlando & Dawn</a></i> variety series.</p> <p>Carlin unexpectedly stopped performing regularly in 1976, when his career appeared to be at its height. For the next five years, he rarely appeared to perform stand-up, although it was at this time he began doing specials for <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Home_Box_Office" title="Home Box Office">HBO</a> as part of its <i><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/On_Location_%28TV_series%29" title="On Location (TV series)">On Location</a></i> series. His first two HBO specials aired in 1977 and 1978. It was later revealed that Carlin had suffered the first of his three non-fatal <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Myocardial_infarction" title="Myocardial infarction">heart attacks</a> during this layoff period.<sup id="cite_ref-bravo_3-1" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_Carlin#cite_note-bravo-3" title="">[4]</a></sup></p> <p><a name="1980s_and_1990s"></a></p> <h3><span class="mw-headline">1980s and 1990s</span></h3> <p>In 1981, Carlin returned to the stage, releasing <i><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A_Place_For_My_Stuff" class="mw-redirect" title="A Place For My Stuff">A Place For My Stuff</a></i>, and he returned to <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HBO" class="mw-redirect" title="HBO">HBO</a> and New York City with the <i><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carlin_at_Carnegie" class="mw-redirect" title="Carlin at Carnegie">Carlin at Carnegie</a></i> <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/TV_special" class="mw-redirect" title="TV special">TV special</a>, videotaped at <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carnegie_Hall" title="Carnegie Hall">Carnegie Hall</a> and airing during the 1982-83 season. Carlin continued doing HBO specials every year or every other year over the following decade-and-a-half. All of Carlin's albums from this time forward are the HBO specials.</p> <p>By 1989, Carlin had become popular with a new generation of teens when he was cast as Rufus, the mentor of the titular characters in <i><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bill_%26_Ted%27s_Excellent_Adventure" title="Bill & Ted's Excellent Adventure">Bill & Ted's Excellent Adventure</a></i> and reprised his role in the film sequel <i><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bill_and_Ted%27s_Bogus_Journey" class="mw-redirect" title="Bill and Ted's Bogus Journey">Bill and Ted's Bogus Journey</a></i> as well as the first season of the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bill_and_Ted%27s_Excellent_Adventures" title="Bill and Ted's Excellent Adventures">cartoon series</a>. In 1991, he provided the narrative voice for the American version of the children's show <i><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_the_Tank_Engine_%26_Friends" class="mw-redirect" title="Thomas the Tank Engine & Friends">Thomas the Tank Engine & Friends</a></i>, a role he continued until 1998. He played "Mr. Conductor" on the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PBS" class="mw-redirect" title="PBS">PBS</a> children's show <i><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shining_Time_Station" title="Shining Time Station">Shining Time Station</a></i> which featured Thomas from 1991 to 1993 as well as Shining Time Station TV specials in 1995 and <i><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mr._Conductor%27s_Thomas_Tales" title="Mr. Conductor's Thomas Tales">Mr. Conductor's Thomas Tales</a></i> in 1996. Also in 1991, Carlin had a major supporting role in the movie <i><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prince_of_Tides" class="mw-redirect" title="Prince of Tides">Prince of Tides</a></i> along with <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nick_Nolte" title="Nick Nolte">Nick Nolte</a> and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Barbra_Streisand" title="Barbra Streisand">Barbra Streisand</a>.</p> <p>Carlin began a weekly <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fox_Broadcasting_Company" title="Fox Broadcasting Company">Fox Broadcasting</a> <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sitcom" class="mw-redirect" title="Sitcom">sitcom</a>, <i><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_George_Carlin_Show" title="The George Carlin Show">The George Carlin Show</a></i>, in 1993, playing New York City <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taxi" title="Taxi">cab driver</a> "George O'Grady". He quickly included a variation of the "Seven Words" in the plot. The show ran 27 episodes through December 1995.<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_Carlin#cite_note-30" title="">[31]</a></sup></p> <p>In 1997, his first hardcover book, <i><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brain_Droppings" title="Brain Droppings">Brain Droppings</a></i>, was published, and sold over 750,000 copies as of 2001.<sup class="noprint Template-Fact"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources" style="white-space: nowrap;">[<i><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a></i>]</span></sup> Carlin was honored at the 1997 <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aspen_Comedy_Festival" class="mw-redirect" title="Aspen Comedy Festival">Aspen Comedy Festival</a> with a retrospective <i>George Carlin: 40 Years of Comedy</i> hosted by <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jon_Stewart" title="Jon Stewart">Jon Stewart</a>.</p> <p>In 1999, Carlin played a supporting role as a satirically marketing-oriented <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roman_Catholic" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman Catholic">Roman Catholic</a> <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cardinal_%28Catholicism%29" title="Cardinal (Catholicism)">cardinal</a> in filmmaker <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kevin_Smith_%28film_maker%29" class="mw-redirect" title="Kevin Smith (film maker)">Kevin Smith's</a> movie <i><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dogma_%28movie%29" class="mw-redirect" title="Dogma (movie)">Dogma</a></i>. He worked with Smith again with a <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cameo_appearance" title="Cameo appearance">cameo appearance</a> in <i><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jay_and_Silent_Bob_Strike_Back" title="Jay and Silent Bob Strike Back">Jay and Silent Bob Strike Back</a></i>, and later played an atypically serious role in <i><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jersey_Girl_%282004_movie%29" class="mw-redirect" title="Jersey Girl (2004 movie)">Jersey Girl</a></i>, as the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blue_collar" class="mw-redirect" title="Blue collar">blue collar</a> dad of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ben_Affleck" title="Ben Affleck">Ben Affleck's</a> character.</p> <p><a name="2000s"></a></p> <h3><span class="mw-headline">2000s</span></h3> <p>In 2001, Carlin was given a <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lifetime_Achievement_Award" class="mw-redirect" title="Lifetime Achievement Award">Lifetime Achievement Award</a> at the 15th Annual <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Comedy_Awards" title="American Comedy Awards">American Comedy Awards</a>.</p> <p>In December 2003, California U.S. Representative <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doug_Ose" title="Doug Ose">Doug Ose</a> introduced a bill (H.R. 3687) to outlaw the broadcast of Carlin's seven "dirty words", including "compound use (including hyphenated compounds) of such words and phrases with each other or with other words or phrases, and other grammatical forms of such words and phrases (including verb, adjective, gerund, participle, and infinitive forms)". (The bill omits "<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tit" title="Tit">tits</a>", but includes "<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ass" title="Ass">ass</a>" and "<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asshole" title="Asshole">asshole</a>", which were not part of Carlin's original routine.)</p> <p>The following year, Carlin was fired from his headlining position at the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MGM_Grand_Hotel" class="mw-redirect" title="MGM Grand Hotel">MGM Grand Hotel</a> in <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Las_Vegas" title="Las Vegas">Las Vegas</a> after an altercation with his audience. After a poorly received set filled with dark references to suicide bombings and beheadings, Carlin stated that he couldn't wait to get out of "this fucking hotel" and Las Vegas in general, claiming he wanted to go back East "where the real people are". He continued to insult his audience, stating "People who go to Las Vegas, you've got to question their fucking intellect to start with. Traveling hundreds and thousands of miles to essentially give your money to a large corporation is kind of fucking moronic. That's what I'm always getting here is these kind of fucking people with very limited intellects." An audience member shouted back that Carlin should "stop degrading us", at which point Carlin responded "Thank you very much, whatever that was. I hope it was positive; if not, well blow me." He was immediately fired by MGM Grand and soon after announced he would enter rehab for drug and alcohol addiction.<sup id="cite_ref-tagreviewj_31-0" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_Carlin#cite_note-tagreviewj-31" title="">[32]</a></sup></p> <p>For years, Carlin had performed regularly as a headliner in <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Las_Vegas%2C_Nevada" title="Las Vegas, Nevada">Las Vegas</a>. He began a tour through the first half of 2006, and had a new <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Home_Box_Office" title="Home Box Office">HBO</a> Special on <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/November_5" title="November 5">November 5</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2005" title="2005">2005</a> entitled <i>Life is Worth Losing</i>,<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_Carlin#cite_note-32" title="">[33]</a></sup> which was shown live from the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beacon_Theatre" title="Beacon Theatre">Beacon Theatre</a> in <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_York_City" title="New York City">New York City</a>. Topics covered included <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Suicide" title="Suicide">suicide</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_disaster" title="Natural disaster">natural disasters</a> (and the impulse to see them escalate in severity), <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cannibalism" title="Cannibalism">cannibalism</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genocide" title="Genocide">genocide</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_sacrifice" title="Human sacrifice">human sacrifice</a>, threats to <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Civil_liberties" title="Civil liberties">civil liberties</a> in America, and how an argument can be made that humans are inferior to animals.</p> <p>On <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/February_1" title="February 1">February 1</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2006" title="2006">2006</a>, Carlin mentioned to the crowd, during his <i>Life is Worth Losing</i> set at the Tachi Palace Casino in <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lemoore%2C_California" title="Lemoore, California">Lemoore</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/California" title="California">California</a>, that he had been discharged from the hospital only six weeks previously for "<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heart_failure" title="Heart failure">heart failure</a>" and "<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pneumonia" title="Pneumonia">pneumonia</a>", citing the appearance as his "first show back".</p> <p>Carlin provided the voice of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fillmore_%28Cars%29#Fillmore" class="mw-redirect" title="Fillmore (Cars)">Fillmore</a>, a character in the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Disney" class="mw-redirect" title="Disney">Disney</a>/<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pixar" title="Pixar">Pixar</a> animated feature <i><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cars_%28film%29" title="Cars (film)">Cars</a></i>, which opened in theaters on <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/June_9" title="June 9">June 9</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2006" title="2006">2006</a>. The character Fillmore is a <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/VW_Microbus" class="mw-redirect" title="VW Microbus">VW Microbus</a> with a <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychedelic" title="Psychedelic">psychedelic</a> paint job, whose front license plate reads "51237" — Carlin's birthday.</p> <p>Carlin's last HBO stand-up special, <i><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/It%27s_Bad_for_Ya" title="It's Bad for Ya">It's Bad for Ya</a></i>, aired live on <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/March_1" title="March 1">March 1</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2008" title="2008">2008</a> in <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Santa_Rosa%2C_California" title="Santa Rosa, California">Santa Rosa, CA</a> at the Wells Fargo Center For The Arts.<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_Carlin#cite_note-33" title="">[34]</a></sup> Many of the themes that appeared in this HBO special included "American Bullshit", "Rights", "Death", "Old Age", and "Child Rearing". Carlin had been working the new material for this HBO special for several months prior in concerts all over the country.</p> <p>On <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/June_18" title="June 18">June 18</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2008" title="2008">2008</a>, four days before his death, the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_F._Kennedy_Center_for_the_Performing_Arts" title="John F. Kennedy Center for the Performing Arts">Kennedy Center for the Performing Arts</a> in <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Washington%2C_DC" class="mw-redirect" title="Washington, DC">Washington, DC</a> announced that Carlin would be the 2008 honoree of the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mark_Twain_Prize_for_American_Humor" title="Mark Twain Prize for American Humor">Mark Twain Prize for American Humor</a> to be awarded in November of that year.<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_Carlin#cite_note-34" title="">[35]</a></sup></p> <p><a name="Personal_life" id="Personal_life"></a></p> <h2><span class="mw-headline">Personal life</span></h2> <p>In 1961, Carlin married Brenda Hosbrook (born <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/June_12" title="June 12">June 12</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1939" title="1939">1939</a>, died <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/May_11" title="May 11">May 11</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1997" title="1997">1997</a>), whom he had met while touring the previous year, in her parents' living room in <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dayton%2C_Ohio" title="Dayton, Ohio">Dayton</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ohio" title="Ohio">Ohio</a>. The couple had a daughter, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Kelly_Carlin-McCall&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Kelly Carlin-McCall (page does not exist)">Kelly</a>, in 1963. In 1971, George and Brenda renewed their wedding vows in <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Las_Vegas%2C_Nevada" title="Las Vegas, Nevada">Las Vegas</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nevada" title="Nevada">Nevada</a>. Brenda died of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liver_cancer" title="Liver cancer">liver cancer</a> a day before Carlin's 60th birthday, in 1997.</p> <p>In December 2004, Carlin announced that he would be voluntarily entering a drug rehabilitation facility to receive treatment for his <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Addiction" title="Addiction">dependency</a> on alcohol and painkillers.<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_Carlin#cite_note-35" title="">[36]</a></sup></p> <p>Carlin did not vote and often criticized elections as an illusion of choice.<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_Carlin#cite_note-36" title="">[37]</a></sup> He said he last voted for <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_McGovern" title="George McGovern">George McGovern</a>, who ran for President in 1972<sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_Carlin#cite_note-37" title="">[38]</a></sup> against <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_Nixon" title="Richard Nixon">Richard Nixon</a>.</p> <p><a name="Religion" id="Religion"></a></p> <h2><span class="mw-headline">Religion</span></h2> <p>Although raised in the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roman_Catholic" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman Catholic">Roman Catholic</a> faith, Carlin often denounced the idea of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/God" title="God">God</a> in interviews and performances, most notably with his "Invisible Man in the Sky" and "There Is No God" routines. In mockery, he invented the parody religion Frisbeetarianism for a newspaper contest. He defined it as the belief that when a person dies "his <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soul" title="Soul">soul</a> gets flung onto a roof, and just stays there", and cannot be retrieved.</p> <p>Carlin also joked that he worshipped the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun" title="Sun">Sun</a>, because he could actually see it, but prayed to <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joe_Pesci" title="Joe Pesci">Joe Pesci</a> (a good friend of his in real life) because "he's a good actor", and "looks like a guy who can get things done!"<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_Carlin#cite_note-38" title="">[39]</a></sup></p> <p>Carlin also introduced the "Two Commandments", a revised "pocket-sized" list of the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ten_Commandments" title="Ten Commandments">Ten Commandments</a> in his HBO special <i><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Complaints_and_Grievances" title="Complaints and Grievances">Complaints and Grievances</a></i>, ending with the additional commandment of "Thou shalt keep thy religion to thyself."<sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_Carlin#cite_note-39" title="">[40]</a></sup></p> <p><a name="Themes" id="Themes"></a></p> <h2><span class="mw-headline">Themes</span></h2> <p>Carlin's themes have been known for causing considerable controversy in the American media. His most usual topic was (in his words) humanity's "<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bullshit" title="Bullshit">bullshit</a>", which might include murder, genocide, war, rape, corruption, religion and other aspects of human civilization. His delivery frequently treated these subjects in a <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Misanthropy" title="Misanthropy">misanthropic</a> and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nihilism" title="Nihilism">nihilistic</a> fashion, such as in his statement during the <i>Life is Worth Losing</i> show: "I look at it this way... For centuries now, man has done everything he can to destroy, defile, and interfere with nature: clear-cutting forests, strip-mining mountains, poisoning the atmosphere, over-fishing the oceans, polluting the rivers and lakes, destroying wetlands and aquifers... so when nature strikes back, and smacks him on the head and kicks him in the nuts, I enjoy that. I have absolutely no sympathy for human beings whatsoever. None. And no matter what kind of problem humans are facing, whether it's natural or man-made, I always hope it gets worse."</p> <p>Language, from the obscene to the innocuous, had always been a focus of Carlin's work. Euphemisms that seek to distort and lie, and generally the use of pompous, presumptuous and downright silly language are often the target of Carlin's works.</p> <p>Carlin also gave special attention to prominent topics in <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Culture" class="mw-redirect" title="American Culture">American Culture</a> and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Western_Culture" class="mw-redirect" title="Western Culture">Western Culture</a>, such as: obsession with fame and celebrity, consumerism, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christianity" title="Christianity">Christianity</a>, political alienation, corporate control, hypocrisy, child raising, fast food diet, news stations, self-help publications, patriotism, sexual taboos, certain uses of technology and surveillance, and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pro-life" title="Pro-life">pro-life</a><sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_Carlin#cite_note-40" title="">[41]</a></sup> among many others.</p> <p>Carlin openly communicated in his shows and in his interviews that his purpose for existence was entertainment, that he was "here for the show". He professed a hearty <i><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Schadenfreude" title="Schadenfreude">schadenfreude</a></i> in watching the rich spectrum of humanity slowly self-destruct, in his estimation, of its own design; saying, "When you're born, you get a ticket to the freak show. When you're born in America, you get a front-row seat." He acknowledged that this is a very selfish thing, especially since he included large human catastrophes as entertainment.</p> <p>In a late-1990s interview with radio talk show host <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Art_Bell" title="Art Bell">Art Bell</a>, he remarked about his view of human life: "I think we're already 'circling the drain' as a species, and I'd love to see the circles get a little faster and a little shorter."</p> <p>In the same interview, he recounted his experience of a California <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earthquake" title="Earthquake">earthquake</a> in the early-1970s as: "...an amusement park ride. Really, I mean it's such a wonderful thing to realize that you have <i>absolutely</i> no control... and to see the dresser move across the bedroom floor unassisted... is just exciting." Later he summarized: "I really think there's great human drama in destruction and nature unleashed and I don't get enough of it."</p> <p>A routine in Carlin's 1999 HBO special <i><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/You_Are_All_Diseased" title="You Are All Diseased">You Are All Diseased</a></i> focusing on <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Airport_security" title="Airport security">airport security</a> leads up to the statement: "Take a fucking chance! Put a little fun in your life! ... most Americans are soft and frightened and unimaginative and they don't realize there's such a thing as dangerous fun, and they certainly don't recognize a good show when they see one."</p> <p>Carlin had always included politics as part of his material (along with the wordplay and sex jokes), but by the mid-1980s had become a strident social critic, in both his <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Home_Box_Office" title="Home Box Office">HBO</a> specials and the book compilations of his material. His HBO viewers got an especially sharp taste of this in his take on the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ronald_Reagan" title="Ronald Reagan">Ronald Reagan</a> administration during the 1988 special <i><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/What_Am_I_Doing_In_New_Jersey%3F" class="mw-redirect" title="What Am I Doing In New Jersey?">What Am I Doing In New Jersey?</a></i> broadcast live from the Park Theatre in <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Union_City%2C_New_Jersey" title="Union City, New Jersey">Union City</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_Jersey" title="New Jersey">New Jersey</a>.</p> <p><a name="Death" id="Death"></a></p> <h2><span class="mw-headline">Death</span></h2> On <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/June_22" title="June 22">June 22</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2008" title="2008">2008</a>, Carlin was admitted to <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saint_John%27s_Health_Center" title="Saint John's Health Center">St. John's Hospital</a> in Santa Monica, California after complaining of chest pain. He died later that day at 5:55 p.m. PDT of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heart_failure" title="Heart failure">heart failure</a> at the age of 71.Administratorhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/08457535216173436628noreply@blogger.com0